LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY 'OF   CALIFORNIA. 


THE   MANUFACTURE 


OF 


PHOTOGENIC  OR  HYDRO-CARBON 


OILS, 


jfnrai  tel  rob  0%r  §ituinin0tts 


CAPABLE    OP 


SUPPLYING    BUENING    FLUIDS 


UNIVERSITY 


THOMAS  AXTISELL,  M.D., 

PEOFE880B  OF  CHEMISTRY  IX  THE  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT  OP  GEORGETOWN 
COLLEGE,   D.  C.,   ETC.,   ETC. 


NEW   YOEK: 
D.   APPLETON     AND     COMPANY, 

443  &  445    BROADWAY. 
LONDON:    16    LITTLE    BEITAIN. 

1865. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  Distrfet  of  New  York. 

*-*VM 


PEEFACE. 


THE  present  little  treatise  is  the  first  published 
monograph  on  the  art  of  distilling  oils  from  miner- 
als containing  Bitumen:  like  the  art  itself,  it  is 
necessarily  imperfect  in  some  particulars.  The  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  detailed  information  on  methods 
of  manufacture  abroad  or  at  home,  is  not  incon- 
siderable, when  the  history  and  progress  of  an  art 
has  to  be  newly  described. 

The  position  which  the  Author  occupies  in  the 
U.  S.  Patent  Office  (having  in  charge  the  examina- 
tion of  a  large  class  of  patented  applications,  involv- 
ing chemical  processes),  has  enabled  him  to  present 
to  the  public  this  record  of  the  origin  and  condition 
of  an  infant  art — the  well-furnished  Library  of  the 
Patent  Office  having  furnished  him  the  means  to 
indicate  the  state  of  the  manufacture  abroad. 

It  is  hoped  it  will  be  acceptably  received  by 
those  occupied  with,  or  interested  in,  this  new 
branch  of  industry. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION — HISTORY   OF   THE   ART,  .  .  .  .7 

CHAPTER  II. 

ON  THE  dHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  BITUMINOUS  COAL,  BITUMINOUS 
SCHIST,  NATIVE  BITUMENS,  PEAT,  AND  ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES 
YIELDING  PHOTOGENIC  OILS,  .  .  .  .  .17 

CHAPTER  III. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  JNVOLVED  IN  DESTRUCTIVE  DISTILLA- 
TION! RESULTING  PRODUCTS  OBTAINED,  .  .  .39 

CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  BITUMI- 
NOUS COAL,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .47 

CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  PRODUCTS    DERIVED     FROM   THE   DISTILLATION    OF    SCHISTS 

AND  NATURAL  BITUMENS,  .  .  .  .  .77 

CHAPTER  VI. 

OF   THE   DISTILLATION   OF   PEAT   AND   WOOD,  .  .  .85 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ON   THE   VARIOUS   MODES    OF   APPLYING   HEAT    IN   THE    PROCESS   OF 

DISTILLING   PHOTOGENIC    OILS,    .  .  .  .  .92 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

GENERAL   REMARKS    ON   THE    COMMERCIAL    MANUFACTURE,     .  .113 

SYNOPTICAL   RESUME  OF   PATENTED    IMPROVEMENTS   HAVING   REFER- 
ENCE  TO    THE   DISTILLATION   OF   OILS   FROM    COALS,    BITUMENS, 
AND    SCHISTS,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .136 

I.    AMERICAN  PATENTS,          .  .  .  .  .136 

II.   EUROPEAN   PATENTS,         .  .  .  .141 


CHAPTER   I. 

HISTORICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

THE  new  and  extensive  manufacture  of  oils  from  coal 
and  other  bituminous  substances,  is  one  of  the  latest  ap- 
plications of  that  valuable  mineral  to  new  and  important 
uses  ;  and  though  still  in  its  rudest  infancy,  it  promises 
to  become  one  of  the  most  enlarged  and  valuable  applica- 
tions to  which  coal  has  been  subjected. 

When  the  number  of  products  derivable  from  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal  at  low  temperatures  is 
taken  into  account,  the  many  and  varied  uses  to  which 
each  and  all  of  these  are  capable  of  being  adapted,  the 
cheapness  of  production,  and  the  unlimited  capability  of 
supply,  we  are  tempted  to  believe  that  this  last  effort  to 
further  utilize  an  already  inconceivably  useful  mineral, 
is  the  happiest  modern  result  of  the  application  of  Chem- 
istry to  the  arts  of  life. 

The  discovery  of  the  production  of  oils  from  coal, 
appears  to  date  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Boyle, 
when  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Clayton  were  made  upon 
the  inflammable  nature  of  the  distillates  of  coal.  These 


8  HISTOKICAL    INTRODUCTION. 

were  first  communicated  to  the  public  by  the  Koyal 
Society  of  London,  many  years  after,  in  1739:  "  first, 
(says  he,)  there  came  over  a  flegm,  then  a  black  oil,  and 
then  likewise  a  spirit  (gas)  arose,  which  I  could  in  no 
wise  condense."  This  gas  was  such  a  matter  of  novelty 
and  interest,  that  the  appearance  or  nature  of  the  oil  was 
overlooked,  and  Clayton's  experiments  were  wholly  directed 
to  the  examination  of  the  gas,  and  not  of  the  fluid  pro- 
ducts. 

Dr.  Hales,  in  his  Vegetable  Statics,  published  in  1726, 
describing  experiments  conducted  by  him,  mentions  the 
production  of  a  volatile  oil,  which  he  condensed  in -a  ves- 
sel attached  to  the  still. 

.Dr.  Watson,  Bishop  of  Llandaff,  also  describes  the 
production  of  oils  whenever  coal  is  heated  to  redness  in 
close  vessels. — (Philos.  Trans.,  Yol.  41.) 

Mr.  Northern,  of  Leeds,  (England,)  in  the  year  1805, 
called  public  attention  to  the  use  of  coal  gas,  and  in  the 
Monthly  Magazine  for  April,  1805,  writes  :  "  I  distilled 
in  a  retort  50  oz.  of  pit  coal  in  a  red  heat,  which  gave 
6  oz.  of  a  liquid  matter  covered  with  oil  more  or  less  fluid 
as  the  heat  was  increased  or  diminished  ;  about  26  oz.  of 
cinder  remained  in  the  retort  ;  the  rest  came  over  in  the 
form  of  air  as  it  was  collected  in  the  pneumatic  apparatus. 
*  *  *  *  *  In  the  receiver  I  found  a  fluid  of  an 
acid  taste,  with  a  great  quantity  of  oil,  and  at  the  bottom 
a  substance  resembling  tar." 

This  passage  contains  the  germ  or  basis  of  the  manu- 
facture of  Volatile  Oils  from  Coal,  which  was  not  further 
pursued  until  nearly  trie  middle  of  the  present  century, 
when  the  demand  for  rapid  solvents  of  Caoutchouc  became 
so  urgent,  that  new  modes  of  obtaining  benzule  led  to  the 
distillation  of  tax  for  that  purpose,  and  while  separating 


HISTORICAL    INTRODUCTION.  9 

benzule  by  fractional  distillation,  other  valuable  lumi- 
niferous  agents  were  found  to  be  present,  or  capable  of 
being  derived  from  the  same  crude  fluid. 

Before  tbe  application  of  coals  to  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  the  necessity  which  existed  for  the  use  of  tar  for 
various  purposes  by  the  English  navy  and  mercantile 
marine,  led  to  the  carbonization  of  coals  for  the  obtaining 
of  tar  therefrom  ;  and  though  generally  esteemed  inferior 
for  these  purposes  to  wood  tar,  yet  the  scarcity  of  forests 
and  consequent  high  price  of  the  latter,  led  to  a  ready 
market  for  coal  tar.  The  subsequent  extended  manufac- 
ture of  gas,  not  only  in  England,  but  throughout  the 
world,  led  to  a  large  supply  of  tar,  independent  of  its 
separate  manufacture.  The  manufacture  of  coke  in  ovens 
led  also  to  a  smaller  additional  supply. 

Laurent  and  Keichenbach  had  shown  the  results  yielded 
by  the  distillation  of  tars,  and  Selligue  in  France  applied 
this  knowledge  to  the  practical  treatment  of  the  bitumi- 
nous schists  of  Autun,  and,  still  later,  to  the  paper  coal 
and  bituminous  slate  of  the  coal  formation, 

Selligue  purified  the  oils  so  as  to  make  burning  fluids 
of  them,  and  was  the  true  introducer  of  that  industry  into 
France.  Mansfield,  at  the  close  of  1847,  obtained  his 
patent  for  the  separation  and  purification1  of  volatile  liquids 
from  tar  :  the  benzule,  which  he  introduced  into  the 
English  market,  at  once  commanded  a  ready  sale,  from  its 
known  property  of  dissolving  caoutchouc.  Before  the 
mastication  of  rubber  was  practised,  its  solution  was  tbe 
only  known  mode  of  separating  its  particles  and  enabling 
sheet  rubber  to  be  made  ;  and  as*turpentine  acted  but 
slowly  as  a  solvent,  benzule  was  esteemed  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  arts.  Mansfield  had  pointed  out  its  property 
of  rendering  air  or  gases  luminous  when  saturated  with  its 


10  HISTOEICAL    INTRODUCTION. 

vapor,  and  naphthalized  gas,  as  it  was  termed,  became  an 
article  in  domestic  use.  The  other  fluids  did  not  make 
their  way  into  the  market  as  burning  fluids,  whether  owing 
to  their  small  production  or  not  is  difficult  to  say.  This 
was  the  position  of  matters  in  1848  and  up  to  1850. 

About  this  time,  James  Young  obtained  a  Scotch 
patent,  and  subsequently  an  English  one,  for  the  obtaining 
of  Paraffine  oils  from  coal :  the  practical  results  of  his 
process  were  so  promising  that  the  treatment  of  coals  for 
the  obtaining  the  distilled  oils  has  every  year  increased  in 
importance. 

This  discovery  of  Young's  was  one  of  a  class  very  com- 
mon in  the  history  of  technological  improvement :  not  one 
in  which  the  improvement  has  been  of  that  character  to 
astonish  by  its  novelty,  or  excite  admiration  by  its  magni- 
tude ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  small  step  in  advance  of 
previous  applied  knowledge,  an  advance  so  slight  as  hardly 
to  have  elicited  any  surprise  at  the  time  of  publication. 

Many  years  before  1848,  it  had  been  known  that 
bituminous  schists  afforded  on  destructive  distillation 
considerable  quantities  of  oil,  and  efforts  were  not  wanting 
both  in  France  and  England  to  turn  these  shales  to  prac- 
tical advantage. 

The  experiments  of  the  Hon.  Kobert  Boyle  upon  coal, 
by  which  he  obtained  a  gas,  were  the  first  efforts  to 
separate  an  illuminating  agent  from  that  mineral;  his 
attempts  were  not  repeated,  and  his  discoveries  lay  with- 
out any  practical  result  for  exactly  100  years,  when  Mr. 
Murdock,  of  Cornwall,  England,  lighted  up  his  house  at 
Redruth  with  illuminating  gas. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  high  price  of  animal 
oils  and  fats,  and  the  insufficient  supply  of  vegetable  fat 
oils,  directed  attention  to  the  distillation  of  asphalt, 


HISTORICAL   INTRODUCTION.  11 

bitumens,  and  bituminous  schists,  so  as  to  obtain  oils  for 
illumination  therefrom. 

The  manufacture  of  bituminous  oils,  so  extensively 
carried  out  in  Germany  and  France  for  the  last  15  years, 
is  of  comparatively  recent  growth  in  Great  Britain  and 
this  country,  where  the  pursuit  of  whale  fishing  supplied 
the  market  with  abundance  of  lamp  oils. 

It  was  not,  therefore,  by  tentative  essays  upon  coal  or 
its  crude  tar  alone,  that  the  production  of  volatile  oils 
was  wholly  perfected.  From  the  time  when  Lavoisier  had 
opened  up  the  new  and  exact  mode  of  examining  material 
substances,  the  bitumens  of  Europe  had  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  chemists.  Theodore  de  Saussure  distilled  the 
asphaltic  limestoneN  of  Travers,  Neufchatel,  (Switzerland,) 
in  1819  and  1820 ;  he  obtained  an  oil  Jherefrom,  and 
found  it  identical  with  that  from  the  petroleum  of  Ami- 
ano.  Keichenbach,  the  proprietor  of  the  chemical  works 
of  Tuhirico,  Moravia,  while  examining  the  results  of  the 
dry  distillation  of  beech  wood,  in  1829  and  1830,  dis- 
covered paraffin  ;  he  derived  it  from  the  tar  of  the  wood. 
It  was  found  in  a  few  years  that  paraffin  also  existed  in 
the  tarry  matters  distilled  from  other  species  of  wood,  and 
also  in  the  tars  arising  from  the  distillation  of  bitumens, 
and  ultimately  in  coal.  In  1830-'31,  Keichenbach  dis- 
covered naphthalin  ;  in  1831-'32,  he  described  kreosote, 
piccamar,  and  pittakal,  all  of  which-  were  derived  from 
the  tar  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  woody  matters. 

To  no  one  are  we  so  much  indebted  for  opening  up 
true  views  of  the  results  of  close  distillation  of  organic 
(vegetable)  substances,  as  to  Keichenbach.  His  name 
will  ever  be  coupled  with  the  early  history  of  the  produc- 
tion of  oils  from  bituminous  matters  ;  and  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  for  many  years  all  our  information  on 


12  HISTORICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

this  subject  was  derived  from  his  researches.  Tn  1833 
and  1834,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  distillation  of 
coal  in  close  vessels  in  contact  with  water,  but  without 
any  practical  results  ;  from  220  Ibs.  of  coal,  he  only  ob- 
tained little  more  than  9  ounces  of  volatile  oil,  or  about 
fV  of  1  per  cent.  In  1833,  Dr.  Bley  distilled  brown 
coal,  and  obtained  a  small  quantity  of  volatile  oil,  besides 
some  ammoniacal  products. 

The  difficulty  in  adjusting  the  due  degree  of  heat,  no 
doubt  led  to  the  discouraging  results  (viewed  in  a  practical 
light)  of  the  distillation  of  coals  and  bitumens  ;  and  the 
extensive  use  of  these  materials  in  the  production  of  gas, 
drew  away  the  attention  of  the  chemist  and  the  manufac- 
turer from  the  problem  of  obtaining  liquid  products  in- 
stead of  permanent  gases. 

Still,  however,  various  attempts  were  made  to  improve 
the  apparatus  for  distilling  ;  and  the  retorts  of  Hompesch, 
and  Beslay,  and  Kouen,  of  Gengembre,  and  others,  show 
that  from  1841,  correct  views  as  to  the  means  for  distilling, 
for  separating  the  products,  and  for  adjusting  the  tem- 
perature, had  commenced  to  be  entertained,  although  these 
views  were  not  carried  out  by  treatment  always  appropri- 
ate or  successful. 

In  September,  1812,  Mr.  Lewitte  breveted  an  apparatus 
for  extracting  tar  from  coal,  the  object  being  the  applica- 
tion of  the  tar  to  varnishes,  and  modes  of  protecting 
surfaces  :  two  circular  furnaces,  placed  at  each  end  of  the 
apparatus,  with  fan  or  blasts  to  activate  the  fires  ;  the 
condensing  apparatus  between  the  furnaces,  consists  of  a 
series  of  narrow  passages  in  brick  work,  with  a  reservoir 
placed  in  the  centre  and  front  of  the  apparatus  to  receive 
the  bitumen.  The  mode  of  operation  was,  to  place  3^  tons 
of  coal  in  one  furnace,  and  the  communication  with  the 


HISTORICAL    INTRODUCTION.  13 

other  furnace  shut  off  by  a  register,  the  coals  being 
kindled  by  lighting  some  kindling  placed  below  the  coal 
on  the  hearth,  and  opening  the  blasts,  in  two  hours  the 
combustion  becomes  active,  and  the  tar  commences  to  dis- 
til over.  Combustion  lasts  24  hours,  and  when  over,  the 
register  of  that  furnace  is  shut,  and  the  opposite  one 
lighted,  and  thus  the  condensers  may  be  kept  in  constant 
use  by  alternate  fires.  Coal  afforded  10  per  cent,  of  tar 
by  this  mode  of  distillation  ;  the  residual  coke  was  valu- 
able for  forges  and  iron  furnace  operations. 

In  1824,  Prosper  and  Charles  Chervau  breveted  a  pro- 
cess for  extracting  by  distillation  the  bitumen  which  the 
rocks  in  the  department  of  Saone  and  Loire  contain  abun- 
dantly. The  mode  of  treatment  was  to  place  the  rock, 
broken  into  small  pieces,  into  cylindrical  cast-iron  retorts, 
5  feet  2  inches  long,  20  inches  broad,  and  about  1^  inch 
thick  ;  this  cylinder  is  closed  at  one  end  by  the  luted  cap 
or  lid  in  the  usual  way,  and  at  the  other,  the  lid  has  an 
opening  in  its  centre  for  the  admission  of  the  eduction 
tube,  which  passes  into  a  receiver,  or  wolfe's  bottle  ;  in 
connection  with  this,  nine  other  receivers  are  attached. 
The  vessels  are  of  stone  ware,  and  so  arranged  by  connect- 
ing pipes,  that  when  the  first  receiver  is  half  full,  a  pipe 
leads  off  the  tar  into  the  second,  and  so  on  until  the  last 
receiver  is  filled,  when  it  is  drawn  off  by  a  faucet.  The 
retort  is  placed  on  a  furnace,  whose  wall  supports  it  at 
either  end,  leaving  the  centre  of  the  retort  free  for  the 
flame  to  play  on.  The  receiving  vessels  may  be  emptied 
by  a  syphon  when  the  distillation  is  finished. 

The  bitumen  obtained  had  all  the  character  of  naph- 
tha, and  the  manufacturers  recommend  it  as  well  suited 
for  giving  light  in  alcohol  lamps  ;  they  also  state,  that  by 
operating  on  the  rock  of  Saone  and  Loire  they  have  ex- 


14  HISTOKICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

tracted  volatile  oils  in  the  proportion  of  40  parts  of  oil  to 
100  parts  of  rock. 

Many  impediments  presented  themselves  in  the  prac- 
tical manufacture  of  products  from  the  dry  distillation  of 
wood  and  coal.  Keichenbach  had  shown  the  mode  of  pre- 
paration of  oils  from  vegetable  matters,  (fresh,)  from  tarry 
matters,  and  finally  from  the  carbonizing  of  pit  coal,  but 
the  products  were  always  trifling,  and  therefore  even  the 
establishment  of  moderate  factories  was  neither  profitable 
nor  inviting.  "  So  remained  paraffin  until  this  hour,  a 
beautiful  item  in  the  collection  of  chemical  preparations, 
but  it  has  never  escaped  from  the  rooms  of  the  scientific 
man."  *  Thus  wrote  Keichenbach  of  it  in  1854  Only 
since  the  year  1850  has  the  manufacture  of  paraffin  from 
pit  coal,  turf,  and  bituminous  shales,  succeeded  as  an  art. 
The  first  manufacture  was  that  of  James  Young,  in  Man- 
chester, by  whose  process,  from  100  parts  of  Cannel  coal, 
40  per  cent,  of  oil  and  10  per  cent,  of  paraffin  could  be 
obtained. 

In  thus  showing  that  the  practical  manufacture  of  oils 
from  coal  is  due  to  James  Young,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
call  attention  to  what  it  was  which  he  produced  from  coals 
by  distillation.  He  claimed  the  production  of  paraffin  oils 
— not  the  production  of  naphtha  or  benzule,  nor  naphtha- 
lin,  but  paraffin  and  its  congeners  :  this  involves  the  slower 
distillation  of  coals  at  a  lower  temperature  than  had  been 
hitherto  effected,  and  this  novelty  in  practice  was  followed 
by  the  novel  result  of  a  copious  production  of  isomeric 
liquid  hydrocarbons  ;  so  that  really  two  great  results  were 
first  demonstrated  practically  by  the  operation  of  Young's 
process,  namely — 1st.  That  coal  was  a  material  from 
which  liquids  could  be  manufactured  economically,  as  tar, 

*  Reichenbacli  Journ.  f.  pract.  Chem.  LXIIL,  p.  63. 


HISTORICAL    INTRODUCTION.  15 

bitumens,  and  schists,  had  been  hitherto  employed  ;  and 
2d.  That  the  liquids  so  formed  were  paraffin — containing 
compounds. 

An  impression  has  taken  hold  of  the  American  manu- 
facturing public,  that  tHe  patent  of  James  Young  has  no 
force,  as  it  was  not  a  new  invention  at  the  date  of  the 
patent  ;  and  from  the  unfavorable  effect  of  that  patent 
upon  the  actual  manufacture  of  coal  oils  in  this  country 
an  ill-feeling  has  been  produced  against  it.  That  the 
owners  of  this  patent  have  not  acted  wisely  by  withholding 
sales  and  licenses  under  it  until  very  lately,  is  to  be  re- 
gretted ;  but  that  it  was  a  bona  fide  improvement  in  an 
art  at  the  time  when  it  was  patented,  and  that,  therefore, 
the  patent  was  rightly  issued  in  this  country,  there  can  be 
no  shadow  of  doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one  who  carefully 
traces  the  steps  of  the  discovery  of  the  production  of  pho- 
togenic oils  from  different  materials. 

Chemists  at  the  present  day  look  upon  the  fluid  bitu- 
men from  native  sources,  and  the  bitumen  existing  ready 
formed  in  coal,  as  substances  which,  if  not  identical,  are 
very  closely  allied,  so  closely  that  both,  when  treated  alike, 
yield  products  closely  resembling  each  other.  But  chem- 
ists and  naturalists  did  not  always  hold  this  opinion,  and 
it  was  by  no  means  a  certainly  ascertained  fact,  that  the 
substances  treated  alike  would  yield  like  results  ;  in  fact, 
the  term  bitumen  applied  to  native  plastic  liquids  and  to 
the  material  in  coal  so  named,  conveyed  not  the  same 
idea,  but  merely  a  remote  resemblance  ;  it  was  a  resem- 
blance of  physical  rather  than  of  chemical  properties,  and 
hence  the  fact  propounded  by  Eeichenbach,  and  practically 
demonstrated  by  Young,  that  bituminous  coal  on  distilla- 
tion yielded  paraffin  oils,  was  a  considerable  step  in  ad- 
vance both  in  chemistry  and  manufacture. 


16'  HISTORICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

In  Germany  there  originated,  in  1855,  paraffin  works 
at  Beuel  near  Bonn.,  Ludwigshafen,  and  Toplitz.  A  few 
years  has  sufficed  to  introduce  this  waxy  matter  into  many 
uses  about  us.  This  is  shown  in  the  more  numerous  modes, 
and  the  lower  prices  at  which  it  is  now  obtained. 

The  manufacture  thus  established  in  Germany,  was 
also  founded  in  France  and  Austria  by  Selligue,  and  the 
success  resulting  called  the  attention  of  England  and  this 
country  to  it  as  a  branch  of  manufacture. 

The  first  manufacture  in  this  country  was  the  attempt 
of  Solomon  Gesner  on  the  bituminous  shales  of  Dorches- 
ter, New  Brunswick.  Extensive  manufactories  are  now 
established  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore, 
and  at  several  places  along 'the  Ohio  valley  and  river.  Yet 
the  demand  is  so  much  in  advance  of  the  supply,  that 
not  only  is  the  quantity  produced  insufficient,  but  the  oil 
is  sent  into  the  market  in  such  a  crude  and  impure  state, 
that  much  of  the  tar  is  retained,  and  the  oil  smokes  and 
gives  off  unpleasant  odors  in  the  apartments. 

This  manufacture  once  established  must  always  pro- 
gress :  the  oils  are  valuable  as  solvents  and  as  lubricators, 
as  well  as  for  photogenic  purposes ;  in  the  latter  use,  they 
give  ceteris  paribus  a  whiter  and  a  more  brilliant  light 
than  any  fixed  or  fat  oil,  and  are  produced  at  much  less 
cost  than  oil  can  be  had  for.  Hence,  while  they  narrow 
the  demand  for  fish  and  lard  oils,  which  they  supersede, 
and  thus  prevent  the  cost  of  such  oils  rising  to  any  un- 
usual price,  they  are  themselves  controlled  by  the  price  of 
oil ;  and  it  only  requires  sufficient  attention  to  be  bestowed 
upon  its  purification  so  as  to  free  it  from  creosote  impuri- 
ties to  render  it  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  brilliant,  as 
well  as  the  most  economic  source  of  light  in  those  situa- 
tions where  gas  is  not  desirable  or  attainable 


OBTAINING  PETROLEUM  BY  HYDRAULIC  PRESSURE.— Dr.  Otto  Rotton, 
of  Brooklyn,  U.S.,  has  patented  a  new  method  of  obtaining  petroleum  by 
hydraulic  pressure,  the  advantage  of  which  is  stated  to  be  that  the  work 
is  done  at  one-sixth  the  cost  of  pumping  and  blowing,  and  that  it  requires 

]  neither  steam-engine,  engineers,  pump,  nor  blower.    Dr.  Rotton  can  commence  opera- 

J  tions  at  any  stage  after  a  well  has  ceased  to  flow,  or  at  any  stage  in  a  well  or  reservoira 
where  blowing  can  be  used.  The  well  is  emptied  in  one-fonrth  the  time  now  employed. 

'•  It  is  claimed  that  in  nearly  all  abandoned  wells  much  oil  will  be  obtained  ;  in  many, 
more  than  they  have  ejected  before,  because  the  pump  and  blower  can  only  exhaust  that 

I  which  is  is  in  the  sack  or  crevice  immediately  below  the  tubing.  "  Now,  there  may  be 
ten  to  twenty  sacks  or  reservoirs  In  one  cavity,  separated  by  inequalities  or  walls;  by 
allowing  water  to  flow  over  each  of  these,  one  by  one,  we  can  bring  the  oil  on  the  sur- 

'  face  of  the  water,  in  range  of  our  educting  tube,  and  elevate  it  to  the  surface  of  the  earth 
by  hydraulic  pressure  •  and  where  petroleum  is  at  a  great  depth  separated  from  the  main 

]  sack  or  fissure  by  rock  salt,  we  then  send  fresh  water  which  will  dissolve  this  rock  salt, 
and  opens  communication  with  large  fissures  of  oil,  which  cannot  be  done  by  water  al- 
ready saturated  with  salt." 

PETROLEUM  WORKING  AS  A  SCIENCE.— The  procuring  and  treatment 
of  petroleum  has  obtained  so  important  a  position  in  America  as  a  national 
industry  that  the  trade  is  now  carried  on  with  the  certainty  of  a  science 
The  Humboldt  Mining  and  Refining  Company  was  one  of  the  earliest,  as 
well  as  one  of  the  most  important,  engaged  in  the  trade,  and  every  opportunity  is  taken 
to  adopt  the  newest  and  most  economic  processes.  The  method  of  refining  practised, 
like  that  in  other  places,  appears  extremely  simple  in  its  general  outline,  while  its  daily 
practice  in  detail,  in  order  to  ensure  satisfactory  results,  must  be  accompanied  by  great 

-  care  and  the  utmost  precision.    A  brief  synopsis  of  the  common  and  hitherto  practiced 

-  method  of  changing  the  dark  green,  noisome,  filthy  fluid  known  as  petroleum  into  the 
bright  sparkling,  and  purified  article  of  refined  oil,  will  not  be  uninteresting.    At  the 

1  Humboldt  Works  there  are  twenty-five  stills,  varying  in  capacity  from  20  to  40  barrels, 
prepared  to  receive  the  crude  oil.  This  stills  are  nothing  more  than  hollow  iron  vessels, 

1  very  similar  in  shape  and  appearance  to  an  ordinary  boiler,  without,  of  course,  having  any 
flues  through  them.  The  oil  is  emptied  into  them  and  then  exposed  to  a  sufficient  heat 
to  convert  it  into  vapour.  A  pipe  leads  this  vapour  as  fast  as  it  rises  from  the  still  into 

'  the  condensers.  When  the  heat  begins  to  operate  the  lighter  substances  which  the  oil 
contains  rise.  First  comes  the  benzine,  benzole,  or  naphtha,  which  may  be  considered 
nearly  synonymous  terms,  representing  the  same  substance  in  its  several  variations  from 
a  lighter  to  a  heavier  density.  After  the  benzole  comes  the  oil,  which  Is  received  into 

-  separate  vessels.    When  the  oil  ceases  to  come  there  remains  in  the  stills  a  quantity  of 
thick,  dark  matter,  comprised  of  the  extraneous  substances  of  the  oil.    This  fluid  is  ge- 
nerally  taken  out  when  it  has  obtained  about  the  consistency  of  common  tar,  but  more 
resembling  cold  tar  in  its  properties.    It  can,  by  constant  exposure  to  heat,  be  cooked 
down  to  the  consistency  of  pitch  or  even  into  coke,  but  does  not  generally  pay  for  the 
trouble.    At  the  works  it  is  taken  out  about  the  consistency  of  tar  used  for  fuel.    The 
capacity  of  the  refinery  Is  between  two  and  three  hundred  barrels  per  day,  and  will, 
when  present  improvements  are  complete,  exceed  the  latter  quantity.    The  amount  of 
tar  supplied  from  the  stills  answers  the  purpose  of  fuel  admirably,  and  supplies  that  es- 
sential in  more  than  sufficient  quantities  for  the  whole  establishment,  the  surplus  being 
turned  into  the  creek  as  valueless.    It  is  not  valueless  in  cities,  where  it  supplies  a  va- 
riety of  useful  purposes :  this  value,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  its  transpor- 
tation from  Cherry  Run  during  the  present  depression  in  the  oil  trade,  and  hence  the 
surplus  has  to  be  thrown  away. 

PETROLEUM  AS  A  STEAM  FUEL. — The  boiler  made  some  time  ago  in 
„  the  factory  of  Woolwich  Dockyard  after  the  designs  of  Mr.  Richardson,  to  test  the  prac- 
'•  ticablllty  of  burning  petroleum  for  steam  purposes,  on  Tuesday  had  two  fires  made  under 
'  it  keeping  up  a  powerful  supply  of  steam  throughout  the  day,  for  the  special  inspection 
Eof  Capt.  W.  Edmonstone,  C.B.,  A.D.C.  to  the  Queen,  and  recently  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  the  yard.    The  boiler,  which  appears  to  have  been  built  on  too  confined  a 
compass  to  exhibit  the  full  effect  which  it  is  proved  can  be  produced  by  petroleum  fires, 
has  been  fitted  with  tubes  for  superheating  the  steam  and  consuming  the  smoke.    It 
-(appears,  notwithstanding  its  small  dimensions,  to  have  yielded  a  satisfactory  result, 
and  the  general  opinion  is  that  a  very  short  time  must  elapse  before  it  will  become  the 
acknowledged  and  universal  steam  fuel  for  marine  and  other  locomotive  engines.    The 
!  small  labour  necessary  for  lighting  and  keeping  up  the  fires  will  render  the  duties  of 
.the  stokers  very  light.— Times. 

COMMERCIAL  VALUE  OF  OXYGEN.— The  general  application  of  oxygen 

Hto  lighting  and  heating  purposes  has  been  proposed  in  Paris.  The  expense  has  hitherto 
.  been  the  obstacle  to  its  Introduction,  for  although  there  are  many  substances  which  yield 
I  oxygen  in  abundance,  they  are  all  too  dear.  Mr.  Archereau  has  proposed  the  reaction 

of  silica  upon  the  sulphate  of  lime  as  a  source  of  oxygen.  When  these  substances  are 
M  heated  to  a  proper  temperature  silicate  of  lime  and  two  gases— sulphurous  acid  and 

oxygen -result.    The  former  is  used  (or  the  manufactureof  suiphuricacid,and  the  latter 

it  is  proposed  to  compress  into  cylinders  and  sell  by  the  cubic  foot.  The  materials  here 
LI  used  are  very  cheap,  and  the  heat  required  to  fuse  them  will  be  obtained  from  a  mixture 

of  common  gas  and  oxygen.  The  silicate  of  lime  could  be  used  in  the  manufacture  o- 
>|  glass.  By  directing  a  Jet  of  oxygen  trough  an  ordinary  gas  burner  the  Mumiqatin' 


V"   OP  THR.^^ 
NT 

& 


CHAPTER    II. 

OP  THE  NATURE  t)P  COALS,  CARBONACEOUS  SCHISTS,  NATIVE 
BITUMENS,  AND  ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES  YIELDING  MINERAL 
OILS. 

COAL  is  defined  by  Redfern  to  be  a  compressed  and 
chemically  altered  vegetal  matter,  associated  with  more  or 
less  earthy  substances,  and  capable  of  being  used  as  fuel.  ' 

This  restricts  the  origin  of  coal  to  vegetable  substances, 
and  perhaps  with  propriety,  for  we  do  not  know  of  animal 
substances  by  their  decomposition  producing  a  substance 
having  all  the  properties  of  coal. 

Dr.  Aitken,  of  Glasgow,  and  other  microscopists,  have 
carefully  examined  coal  under  the  microscope,  and  in 
every  case  found  traces  of  vegetable  cells  or  structure, 
showing  its  plant-origin.  Even  in  the  most  altered 
coals  this  could  be  ascertained  ;  hence,  in  the  hands  of  a 
skilful  microscopical  chemist,  this  test  may  be  applied  to 
determine  with  certainty  whether  the  substance  is  a  coal 
or  a  bitumen. 

Native  bitumens,  asphalt,  and  petroleum,  may  have 
been  formed  also  solely  from  vegetable  matter  undergoing 
decomposition  under  peculiar  circumstances.  A  few  geol- 
2 


18  NATURE   OF   COALS,   ETC. 

ogists  and  chemists  are  willing,  however,  to  admit  that 
bitumens  may  be  of  animal  origin,  and  in  a  few  instances 
may  have  been  produced  by  the  slow  subterranean  altera- 
tion of  fish  remains  deposited  during  former  geologic 
periods.  It  is  difficult  to  speak  with  certainty  of  the 
exact  origin  of  bitumens — but  in  one  respect  they  differ 
from  coal.  In  no  case  can  an  organic  tissue  or  structure 
be  demonstrated  when  they  are  examined  under  the 
microscope. 

Viewed  in  this  light,  the  mineral  found  at  the  Albert 
mine,  New  Brunswick,  should  be  classed  as  a  bitumen, 
since  Dr.  J.  Leidy  was  unable  to  detejt  any  traces  of 
structure  in  its  mass  :  its  difficulty  of  fusion  is  no  argu- 
ment against  its  being  a  bitumen,  since  many  of  the 
bitumens  of  France  are  not  fusible.  The  chemists  and 
mineralogists  of  this  country  have,  however,  generally 
agreed  to  class  it  with  the  Boghead  coal  of  Scotland,  as  a 
variety  of  cannel  coal. 

The  various  changes  or  steps  of  the  decomposition  by 
which  vegetable  matter. or  wood  is  ultimately  converted 
into  coal,  are  not  fully  known.  That  tune  plays  a  con- 
siderable part  in  it,  is  evident  from  the  difference  between 
the  true  coals  and  the  lignites,  and  even  between  lignites 
of  different  ages  :  the  vascular  and  cellular  characters  of 
the  wood  being  more  evident  in  the  lignites  than  in  those 
coals  in  which  the  time  for  producing  the  change  was 
prolonged.  It  is  well  known  that  carbonic  acid  gas  es- 
capes abundantly  from  faults  and  fissures  in  the  beds  of 
brown  coal,  which  may  be  the  source  of  the  acidulous 
springs  found  in  those  neighborhoods.  This  loss  of  car- 
bonic acid  appears  to  accompany  the  conversion  of  wood 
into  lignite,  and  the  following  formula,  according  to 
Gregory,  would  explain  this  occurrence  : 


NATURE   OP   COAL.  19 

From  3  equivalents  of  wood  C8«  Haa  0«  take 

3  equivalents  carbonic  acid  C3  08 

and  1  equiv.  of  hydrogen  H 

There  will  be  left  of  brown  coal,     C33  H2i  OIB 

The  change  here  is  the  great  loss  of  oxygen,  which 
consequently  relatively  increases  the  proportion  of  hydro- 
gen and  carbon  in  lignite  above  ordinary  wood. — The 
oxygen  is  removed  as  carhonic  acid. 

The  further  change  into  mineral  coal  appears  to  he 
accompanied  with  additional  loss  of  carbonic  acid — some 
watery  vapor  and  a  quantity  of  hydrogen  which  comes 
away  united  with  carbon  as  carburet  ted  hydrogen  :  this 
is  known  as  the  fire-damp  of  miners.  Splint  coal  and 
cannel  coal  both  have  the  composition  CM  HIS  0,  in 
which  the  loss  of  both  oxygen  and  hydrogen  is  evident, 
especially  the  former. 

If  we  take  the  sum  of  these  substances  escaping,  viz.  :— 

3  equivalents  carburetted  hydrogen,  C3    H6 

3  equivalents  water,  H3    0» 

9  equivalents  carbonic  acid,  C9  Oi8 

If  this  be  deducted       C12  H»    02t 
from  the  formula  of  wood,   C36  Haa  Oaa 

there  would  remain  the  formula  of  Cannel  coal=  C24  HJ3  0 

Caking  coal  may  be  represented  as  Cannel  coal  = 
C24  HIS  0,  minus  olefiant  gas  C4  H4,  and  has  the  for- 
mula C20  Hg  0. 

The  ultimate  constitution  of  coal  being  pointed  out, 
an  interesting  question  presents  itself — What  is  the  state 
or  condition  in  which  the  elements  are  contained  in  the 
coal  ?  The  belief  of  many  is,  that  one  portion  of  the 
carbon  is  in  a  free  or  uncombined  state,  while  the  other 
and  smaller  portion  is  united  with  the  hydrogen  and  oxv- 


20  NATURE   OF   COAL. 

gen  to  form  what  is  known  as  the  bituminous  portion ; 
ind  that  the  first  effect  of  heat  is  to  simply  separate  the 
combined  from  the  uncombined  carbon,  and  that  the  for- 
mation of  anthracite  is  explained  in  this  way  ;  this  may 
be  the  case  with  some  lignites,  but  when  the  homogeneous 
mass  which  true  coal  presents  when  heated — its  semi- 
fusibility — is  considered,  it  would  rather  ^appear  that  the 
carbon  is  altogether  combined  into  one  proximate  sub- 
stance, and  that  the  effect  of  heat  is  not  to  separate,  but 
to  decompose. 

Do  any  of  the  substances  found  in  the  receiver  after 
the  distillation  of  coal  originally  exist  in  it  ?  When  coal 
is  digested  with  ether  but  a  small  portion  dissolves,  which 
gives  a  brown  color  to  the  liquid,  and  which,  when  dry, 
has  some  of  the  characters  of  bitumen  ;  but  neither 
naphtha  nor  petrolene,  which  exist  naturally  in  bitumens, 
can  be  separated  by  any  solvent  from  coal,  and  k  is  there- 
fore not  likely  that  these  substances  exist  in  the  fresh 
coal :  we  may  suppose  the  latter  to  contain  a  series  of 
carbides  of  hydrogen  not  yet  separable  by  any  of  the 
solvents  applied.  When  heated,  these  resolve  themselves 
into  tar  at  first  and  afterwards  into  volatile  oils  ;  this  un- 
known substance  is  called  bitumen — not  that  it  has  been 
proved  to  be  identical  with  native  bitumens,  for  it  has 
not,  but  because  that  by  distillation  it  affords  some  of  the 
products  which  bitumen  yields  when  similarly  treated. 
Paraffin  probably  exists  ready  formed  in  some  coals. 

It  is  the  loose  application  of  the  term  Bitumen  which 
has  obscured  the  history  of  the  improvement  in  the  art 
which  we  are  treating  of.  It  is  of  late  years  only  that 
chemists  have  come  to  look  upon  native  bitumen,  and 
that  substance  found  in  coals,  as  belonging  to  the  same 
species  or  group  :  but  twenty  years  ago  this  resemblance 


NATURE   OF   COAL.  21 

was  not  so  apparent,  and  at  that  time,  to  attempt  to  ap- 
ply coals  to  produce  the  same  substances  as  bitumen  was 
known  to  do,  was  not  thought  of ;  and  although,  as  we 
have  shown  in  the  historical  chapter,  that  these  oils  were 
actually  capable  of  being  produced  by  distillation  of  coal ; 
yet  that  such  was  a  necessary,  constant,  and  reliable  re- 
sult was  not  apprehended.  Hence  the  attempt  of  Mr, 
Young  to  produce  these  oils  on  the  large  scale  from  the 
distillation  of  coal  was  not  put  in  operation,  because  not 
believed  capable  of  resulting  in  a  successful  manufacture. 
It  had  been  already  known  that  bitumens  and  bituminous 
schists  would  yield  these  photogenic  oils  in  abundance  ; 
it  was  also  shown  that  birch  tar,  beech  tar,  and  even  coal 
tar,  would  also  yield  them  ;  but  the  manufacture  of  such 
from  coal  was  not  thought  of  before  Mr.  Young's  patent, 
because  it  was  not  known  or  believed  that  bituminous 
coal  could  yield  them  on  a  large  scale.  This  Mr.  Young 
accomplished,  and  thereby  is  entitled  to  the  merit  of  pro- 
ducing oils  from  coal  by  distillation  so  as  to  establish  a 
branch  of  industry  :  and  this  discovery  of  the  value  of 
coal  is  accorded  to  him  by  Keichenbach  himself. 

The  proportion  of  bitumen  present  in  coal  varies  with 
the  amount  of  change  which  the  vegetation  has  undergone 
since  its  deposition :  actions  of  internal  terrestrial  heat, 
accompanied  by  moisture  under  great  pressure,  exerted 
upon  it,  tends  to  expel  -its  bitumen,  and  reduce  the  coal 
to  the  condition  of  anthracite.  All  coal  would  be  bitu- 
minous, were  it  not  for  these  changes  produced  by  geo- 
logical alterations  of  the  sedimentary  strata  in  which  ther 
deposit  took  place. 

The  bitumen  varies  in  amount  from  10  to  63  per  cent., 
the  coal  being  termed  fat  in  the  latter,  and  dry  in  the 
former  case. 


22  *  NATUKE   OF   COAL. 

Bituminous  coal  is  softer  and  less  lustrous  than  an- 
thracite, of  a  black  or  brown-black  color,  and  with  a 
specific  gravity  ranging  from  1.14  to  1.5.  When  the 
bitumen  is  in  abundance,  it  is  often  difficult  to  say 
whether  the  substance  is  a  coal  or  a  bitumen. 

The  bitumen  of  coal  resembles  that  afforded  by  nature, 
as  asphalt  and  mineral  tar,  in  its  sensible  qualities  and 
general  appearance  ;  it  does  not,  however,  contain  the 
same  proximate  principles  ;  it  does  not  yield  petroline,  nor 
does  it  by  dry  distillation  yield  the  same  fluids  :  they 
belong,  however,  to  the  same  natural  group  or  series,  and 
tend  to  strengthen  the  opinion  generally  held  that  bitu- 
men, petroleum,  and  asphalt  arise  from  the  decomposition 
of  fossil  vegetation.  In  some  cases,  as  before  stated,  it 
may  be  true  that  the  slow  decomposition  of  animal  matter 
may  produce  a  similar  substance  ;  the  fossiliferous  shales 
in  many  bituminous  districts  containing  abundant  exuviee 
of  molluscs  and  fishes,  the  decomposition  of  which  in 
great  abundance,  under  the  peculiar  circumstances  in 
which  they  are  placed,  may  produce  a  hydro-carbon  bitu- 
men similar  to  the  mineral  tar. 

The  natural  bitumens  always  contain  some  volatile 
oil  ready  formed,  and  their  varieties  depend  on  the  greater 
or  less  proportion  of  this  volatile  oil  present  in  them. 

Interspersed  through  the  masses  of  coal  are  found 
small  quantities  of  a  great  variety  of  bodies — carbo-hydro- 
gens-t-fesembling  the  oils  and  stearopten  of  plants  closely 
in  properties  and  combination.  Thus  ozocerite  or  fossil 
wax  is  found  in  cavities  in  the  rock  lying  on  the  coal ; 
it  is  brown,  of  a  foliated  structure,  fuses  at  143°.  Paraf- 
fine  is  also  found  associated  with  coal.  Both  of  them  have 
the  same  composition  as  olefiant  gas. — (Kane.) 


VARIETIES   OF   COAL.  23 

Mineral  coal  is  generally,  for  purposes  of  scientific 
technical  description,  divided  into  three  classes  : 

1.  Anthracite  or  Glance  coal. 

2.  Lignite  or  Brown  coal. 

3.  Black  or  Bituminous  coal. 

For  distillation,  the  latter  class  is  almost  universally 
employed  ;  the  lignite  having  only  a  limited  area  of  dis- 
tribution and  employment,  and  the  anthracite  not  yielding 
any  volatile  liquids.  A  small  quantity  of  a  bituminous 
mineral,  known  as  Boghead  coal,  has  been  employed  in 
Great  Britain,  but  its  nature  is  not  sufficiently  well  de- 
termined to  regard  it  as  a  true  coal,  though  usually  classed 
with  it. 

The  varieties  of  black  coal  are  very  numerous,  but  the 
great  majority  may  be  included  under  four  great  divisions, 
viz. : — 

1.  Caking  Coal:  melting  when  heated,  and  agglu- 
tinating in  masses. 

2.  Splint  Coal :  possessing  a  splintery  fracture. 

3.  Cherry  Coal  r  burns  without  caking  in  any  degree. 

4.  Cannel  Coal :  hard,  compact,  bituminous,  inflames 
at  a  candle. 

Generally  speaking,  the  value  of  these  varieties  is  in 
the  order  set  down,  the  last  variety  yielding  the  largest 
amount  of  volatile  matters ;  then  the  cherry  coal,  while 
the  caking  coal  yields  the  least  supply. 

Cannel  coal  may  occur  in  veins  in  different  positions — 
that  is,  the  cannel  coal  may  occupy  an  inferior  vein,  while 
the  ordinary  pit  coal  may  lie  in  the  vein  above  ;  but  when 
the  two  species  of  coal  occur  together,  the  cannel  coal  is 
much  more  frequently  found  lying  above,  and  in  contact 
•\vith,  the  pit  coal. 


24  CANNEL   COAL. 

Breckenridge  Cannel  coal.  This  coal,  in  Brecken- 
ridge  Co.,  Kentucky,  is  well  exposed  ;  the  coal  measures, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  500  feet  above  mean  high  water 
of  the  Ohio,  at  Cloverport.  Of  the  three  coal  seams 
found 'in  that  region,  the  two  lower  are  common  bitumin- 
ous coal ;  the  uppermost  bed  lies  300  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  river,  and  is  capped  by  a  thick  overlying  mass  of 
sandstone  and  shale.  This  bed  is  three  feet  in  thickness, 
with  a  bituminous  shale  of  some  ten  feet  in  addition,  on 
which  it  immediately  rests.  The  following  are  the  char- 
acters of  this  coal,  as  given  by  Professor  B.  Silliman,  Jr., 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  May,  1854,  from  which  this 
account  is  condensed  : — 

"  1.  Specific  gravity,  1.14  to  1.16.  Common  bituminous  coal  varies 
from  1.27  to  1.35,  and  anthracite,  from  1.50  to  1.85.  The  only  coal 
lighter  than  this,  so  far  as  is  known,  is  the  so-called  Albert  coal,  of 
New  Brunswick,  whose  density  is  1.13.  The  cause  of  this  low  density 
will  be  sought  chiefly  in  the  very  large  amount  of  volatile  matter. 

"2.  Its.  tenacity  and  elasticity.  Coals  are  usually  brittle  and  in- 
elastic :  this  is  tough,  and  resists  powerful  and  repeated  blows,  and 
rebounds  the  hammer  like  wood.  The  splints  of  this  coal  may  be 
sensibly  bent  by  pressure,  and  regain  their  original  form  again.  A 
fissure  in  it  may  be  sprung  open  by  a  wedge,  and  will  close  again  on 
withdrawing  it.  The  writer  has  never  seen  any  other  coal  with  this 
peculiarity. 

"  3.  Its  electrical  power.  This  coal  becomes  powerfully  excited  by 
friction  with  resinous  electricity.  This  peculiarity  may  be  demonstrat- 
ed very  easily,  and  has  never  before  been  noticed  in  any  other  coal,  so 
far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  learn,  except  in  the  •'  Albert  coal '  of 
New  Brunswick,  before  named.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  why 
other  very  highly  bituminous  coals  should  not  have  this  property,  but 
such  is  the  fact  with  a  large  number  that  have  been  tried. 

Ci  4.  Chemical  constitution.  This  has  been  determined  in  the  usual 
way  by  destructive  distillation,  with  the  following  results,  viz. :  in  100 
parts  we  have — 


CANNEL   COAL.  25 

(1) 

Volatile  at  redness,        60.27 
Fixed  carbon,  31.05 

Ash,  8.66 

Hygroscopic  moisture, 
Sulphur,  trace 

99.98  99.927 

Coke,  39.71  36.68 

"  A  comparison  of  these  analyses  with  those  of  other  highly  bitu- 
minous coals,  will  show  that  there  are  very  few  examples  recorded  of 
so  high  an  amount  of  volatile  matter.  For  example,  we  find,  among 
American  coals,  that  the  c  Albert  coal,'  of  New  Brunswick,  yields 
61.74;  the  coal  of  Chippenville,  Pa.,  49.80  ;  that  of  Kanawha,  41.85; 
of  Pittsburg,  32.95,  while  the  mean  of  the  fat  caking  coals  of  Liverpool 
is  37.60  per  cent.  The  Lowmoor  Scotch  Cannel,  and  the  Boghead, 
also  a  Scotch  coal,  are  the  only  ones  giving  a  higher  proportion  of  vol- 
atile matter.  In  fact,  the  ordinary  proportions  of  volatile  and  fixed 
ingredients  in  bituminous  coals  are  completely  reversed  in  the  Breck- 
enridge  Cannel." 

By  comparing  this  description  of  Cannel  coal  with  the 
Boghead,  the  resemblance  will  he  perceived,  the  Boghead 
mineral  having  perhaps  less  density  and  more  volatile 
matter  contained  in  it. 

Among  the  varieties  of  Cannel  coal  mentioned  here, 
should  he  the  Boghead  coal  of  Scotland.  As  the  manu- 
facture of  Pyrogenous  oils  has  introduced  this  mineral 
into  extensive  use  as  a  raw  material,  an  outline  of  its 
properties  as*  here  subjoined. 

Boghead  coal,  or  Torbane  Hill  mineral,  is  found  in 
that  group  of  marine  deposits  defined  by  geologists  as  the 
carboniferous  limestone  of  the  southern  outcrop  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth  coal  field,  and  is  worked  on  a  large  scale 
at  Bathgate,  near  Edinburgh. 

It  is  hard,  brittle,  of  an  earthy-black  color,  and  breaks 
with  a  dull,  even  fracture.  It  burns  with  a  bright,  vo- 


26 


BOGHEAD   COAL. 


luminous  flame,  and  gives  off  much  smoke.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  1.155,  being  the  lightest  variety  of  European 
bituminous  coal  known  ;  it  has  the  following  constitution, 
as  determined  by  Drs.  Penny  (1)  and  Fyfe  (2)  : — 

0)  (2) 

69. 
9.25 


Volatile  matters, 
Carbon  in  Coke, 
Ash, 
Moisture, 


713 
1].3 
16.8 
6 


100. 


21.T5 


100. 


The  ash,  according  to  Dr.  Fyfe,  consists  of  71  per 
cent,  of  silica,  the  rest  being  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  and 
a  minute  quantity  of  iron,  in  union  with  sulphur.  The 
percentage  of  sulphur  amounted  to  0.13,  equivalent  to 
nearly  3  Ibs.  per  ton  of  mineral.  The  larger  amount  of 
volatile  matter  contained  in  Boghead  coal  than  is  found 
in  Cannel  coals,  is  shown  by  the  following  comparative 
analyses,  made  by  Dr.  Penny  : 


Specific 

Volatile 

Carbon  in 

Sulphur, 

Gravity. 

Matters. 

Coke. 

per  cent. 

Boghead,      

1155 

71  9 

118 

168 

3 

Lismahago,     .    . 

1  240 

52  6 

41 

64 

74 

Scotch  Cannel  (average)  . 
Breadisholm,      .... 

1.330 
1.319 

50.6 
40.5 

41.9 
51.5 

7.5 

8. 

1.26 
.3 

Derbyshire  Cannel,      .    . 

47. 

48.4 

4.6 

When  distilled,  the  Boghead  coal  yields  several  prod- 
ucts, among  which  the  absence  of  benzine  is  remarkable, 
it  being  present  in  but  small  quantity  in  the  first  dis- 
tillation. 

C.  G-.  Williams  found  that  the  naphtha  arising  from 
the  distillation  of  Boghead  coal  has  a  very  low  density, 
being  only  .750  at  60°  F.,  although  the  boiling  point,  pre- 
vious to  rectification,  was  290°  F.  ;  by  repeated  fractional 
distillations  and  purifications  by  nitric  acid  and  alkaline 


BOGHEAD   COAL.  27 

solutions,  a  colorless  and  mobile  fluid,  having  the  odor  of 
hawthorn  blossoms,  was  obtained,  with  a  density  of  .725 
at  60°  ;  this  was  butyle  ;  he  also  separated  propyle, 
amyle,  and  caproyle.  The  following  are  the  chief  proper- 
ties of  these  liquids,  as  obtained  from  Torbane  mineral  by 
Williams  :— 

Boiling  Specific  Vapor, 

Point  Gravity,      density  found. 

Propyle,  Ci2  H14  68.  C.  .6745  2.96 

Butyle,  .Cie  Hi8  119.  C.  .6945  3.88 

Amyle,  C20  H2a  159.  C.  .7365  4.93 

Caproyle,  C«  HS6  202.  C.  .7568  5.83 

Paraffine,  picoline,  and  phenole,  have  been  obtained 
from  the  distillate  of  this  mineral  by  Dr.  Genther,  whose 
results  rather  support  the  view  that  it  is  not  a  true  coal : 
that  the  bituminous  matter  in  it  is  not  identical  with  that 
of  ordinary  black  coal  is  evident  from  the  different  prod- 
ucts obtained  by  distillation  ;  in  chemical  constitution,  it 
is  more  properly  related  to  the  petroleums  and  true  bitu- 
mens. C.  G.  Williams  has  detected  hexylene,  Ci2  Hi2, 
and  heptylene,  CM  Hi4,  two  volatile  hydro-carbon  liquids. 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  work  to  enter  into  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  variety  and  extent  of  the  coal  beds  of  the 
United  States  ;  the  reader  is  referred  to  Taylor's  Sta- 
tistics of  Coal,  and  to  the  works  of  W.  E.  Johnson. 

Dr.  Newberry  looks  upon  cannel  coal  and  bituminous 
shale  as  but  variations  of  one  substance,  the  coal  being 
changed  into  a  shale  by  the  addition  of  earthy  matter. 
That  cannel  coal  has  been  formed  by  the  constant  sub- 
mergence of  vegetable  matter  under  water,  which,  with 
the  great  pressure  accompanying,  gives  it  its  homogeneous 
and  laminated  structure.  The  process  of  bituminization 
consists  in  the  escape  of  some  carbonic  acid,  of  hydrogen 
as  water,  and  the  union  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  to  form 


28 


the  various  hydro-carbons.  Water  preserves  the  coal 
from  too  much  oxidation,  and  hence  cannel  coal  formed 
under  water  contains  more  bitumen  than  other  coals. 
The  presence  of  fish-remains  in  cannel  coal,  according  to 
Dr.  Newberry,  shows  its  aquatic  deposition,  and  also  that 
it  must  contain  a  certain  amount  of  animal  matter. 
Splint  and  cannel  coals  are  formed  somewhat  differently 
from  brown  coal  or  lignite,  the  change  taking  place  with- 
out access  of  air — consisting  in  the  removal  of  3  eq.  of 
carburetted  hydrogen,  3  eq.  of  water,  and  9  eq.  of  carbonic 
acid,  thus  : 

Woody  fibre, C38  H2a  022 

3  eq.  carburetted  hydrogen,  C3    H6 

3  eq.  water,  H3    03 

9  eq.  carbonic  acid,  C9  Oi8       Ci2  H9    02i 


Splint  and  cannel  coal,       .     .     C24  Hi3  0 

The  following  are  the  localities  of  cannel  coal,  as  given 
by  K.  C.  Taylor : 

Virginia — Near  Charleston,  Kanawha  Co.,  and  on  Kanawha 

River  and  its  tributaries,       ....         — — 

Brandt's  Mines,  Potomac  Valley,        .  •  .        .5  feet 

Pennsylvania — Near  Greensburg,  Beaver  Co.,   ...  8  feet 

Six  miles  west  of  Greensburg, 

Near  Ebensburg,  Cambria  Co., 
Kentucky — Breckenridge  Co.,  Cloverport,      ....       3  feet 

Indiana — Cannelton, 3-5  feet 

Missouri — St.  Louis,  8  miles  from, 

Callaway  Co.,          .        .        .        .        .        .        .    24-46  feet 

The  figures  indicate  the  thickness  of  the  vein. 

The  Breckenridge  cannel  coal  contains,  in  100  parts, 
according  to  the  analyses  of  Dr.  K.  Peter  (1),  and  B, 
Silliman,  Jr.  (2,  3)  : 


LIGNITE   OR  BROWN   COAL. 


29 


(i) 

(2) 

(3) 

1.30 

.777 

Volatile  matters,     .     .     . 

54.40 
32^ 

60.27 
31.05 

63.525 
27.160 

Ash      

12.30 

8.66 

8.470 

LIGNITE  or  BROWN  COAL  is  more  recent  in  its  forma- 
tion than  the  upper  secondary  or  true  carboniferous  de- 
posits ;  it  is  sometimes  not  easily  distinguishable  from 
common  bituminous  coal.  Usually  of  a  brown-black 
color,  bright  coal  lustre,  with  something  of  the  texture  of 
wood  remaining — often  the  form  and  fibre  of  the  original 
tree  is  retained,  when  it  is  called  lignite  :  this  latter  burns 
with  an  empyreumatic  odor.  Brown  coal  occurs  in  beds 
usually  of  small  extent,  and  is  seldom  so  pure  from  pyrites 
as  the  more  ancient  bituminous  coal. — (Dana.)  The 
depth  of  the  brown  color  depends  upon  the  depth  of  the 
bed  of  coal  itself;  it  rarely  has  a  conchoidal  fracture 
well  defined  ;  it  is  usually  inferior  as  a  fuel,  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  earthy  matters.  The  coal  contains 
usually  a  large  amount  of  moisture,  Varrentrop  having 
found  as  much  as  48  per  cent,  in  a  variety  from  Helm- 
stadt ;  the  average  moisture  is  about  30  per  cent.,  and 
when  air-dried  in  summer,  sinks  to  20  per  cent. 

When  lignite  is  treated  with  Caustic  Potassa,  it  almost 
completely  dissolves,  yielding  a  dark  brown  liquor,  which 
gives  the  same  reactions  that  the  presence  of  Ulmine  in 
solution  does. 

As  this  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  peat,  it  shows  the 
close  relation  which  exists  between  lignites  and  peat,  closer 
than  exists  between  lignites  and  bituminous  coals.  Again, 
the  coke  which  remains  after  the  distillation  of  lignites 
retains  the  form  and  structure  of  the  sample  operated  on, 
as  wood  does,  and  which  never  occurs  with  other  varieties 


30 


LIGNITE  OB   BROWN   COAL. 


of  coal.  As  lignites  are  of  various  ages  of  deposit, 
the  older  varieties  approach  in  characters  very  closely  to 
bituminous  coal. 

Kegnault  gives  the  density  of  the  various  lignites 
which  he  examined  when  in  the  dry  state,  as  between 
1.100  and  1.85,  the  denser  specimens  containing  a  large 
amount  of  earthy  matters. 

Lignite  is  found  in  many  places  in  the  United  States, 
not,  however,  in  such  quantity  as  to  justify  its  being 
worked  for  the  purposes  of  distillation. 

The  following  table  of  the  composition  of  American 
bituminous  coal,  with  the  ratio  of  fixed  to  volatile  matters, 
is  extracted  from  the  report  upon  American  coals  made 
to  the  Navy  Department  of  the  United  States,  by  W.  E. 
Johnson ;  printed  First  Session  of  the  Twenty-eighth 
Congress : — 


Locality. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Moisture. 

Volatile 
Matters. 

Fixed 
Carbon. 

Earthy 
Matters. 

Ratio  of 
Volatile 
to  Fixed 
Matters  . 

1  VIRGINIA,  PENKSYL-  „..,....„_  £  3 

Eastern  Coal  field..  VANIA.  D>  |  | 

)urg,  

1.252 
1.273 
1.431 
1.8221 
1.3092 
1.3050 
1.4023 
1.4431 
1.3236 
1.3949 
1.3404 
1.2919 
1.3617 
1.382 
1.451 
1.437 
1.319 
1.285 
1.289 
1.294 
1.346 
1.325 
1.283 
1.390 

1.397 
2.597 
.803 
2.455 
1.070 

'.893 
.446 
1.339 
.670 
.131 
.770 
1.105 
1.785 
1.785 
1.172 
1.450 
1.339 
1.896 
2.455 
1.841 
.670 
1.785 
1.014 

36.603 
33.992 
12.902 
12.675 
15.178 
17.411 
15.237 
13.577 
13.927 
13.807 
18.676 
21.500 
20.255 
19.782 
23.959 
27.278 
29.678 
31.698 
30.676 
29.796 
34.165 
83.490 
34.497 
28.-T86 

54.926 
68.487 
67.365 
74.527 
77.252 
77.850 
74.761 
74.214 
73.108 
71.532 
73.443 
72,643 
69.590 
67.958 
59.976 
61.083 
60.300 
56.831 
58.794 
53012 
54.620 
56.400 
54.063 
56.112 

7.074 
4.974 
18.930 
10.843 
6.520 
5.239 
9.109 
11.494 
10.773 
13.961 
7.750 
5.087 
9.050 
10.475 
14.280 
10.467 
8.572 
10.132 
8.634 
14.737 
9.374 
9.440 
9.655 
14.138 

2.014 
1.719 
5.222 
5.888 
5.096 
4.738 
4.906 

5.181 
3.930 
3.378 
3.435 
3.435 
2.499 
2.239 
2.032 
1.793 
1.917 
1.780 
1.590 
1.6S4 
1.567 
1.953 

slton  Indiana 

Maryland  N.Y.  &  Md.  Ms.Co. 
Frostburg  (Neff  ),  .... 
Cumberland 

do.              

do.           

Dauphin  and  Susquehanna, 
Blossburg,     
Ralston,  ~    

Quin's  Kun,  Clinton  Co.,   . 
Carthaus,  Clearfleld  Co.,      . 
Cambria  Co.,     

Barr's  Kun,    

Crouch  &  Snead,  .    . 
Midlothian,     

Creek  Co.,     .    .    . 

Clover  Hill     .    . 

Chesterfield,  Ms.  Co.,    .    . 
do.           do.       ... 
Tippecanoe,  

Midlothian,  new  shaft,     .    . 
do.       screened,  .    .    . 
do.       Navy  Yard,   .    . 

The  same  experimenter  has  given  the  results  of  his 
examination  of  foreign  bituminous  coal,  which  may  serve 
as  a  point  of  comparison  : — 


NATUBE  OP   BITUMEN. 


31 


Locality. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Moisture. 

Volatile 
Matter. 

Fixed 
Carbon. 

Earthy 
Matters. 

Ratio  of 
Volatile 
to  Fixed 
Matters. 

1.318 
1.325 
1.338 
1.262 
1.257 
1.519 

2.567 
.781 
8.125 
.892 
2.007 
8.013 

27.068 
25.9S5 
23.Sld 
89.5S7 
33.597 
88.837 

56.981 
60.735 
67.570 
54.899 
56.996 
48.812 

13.389 
12.508 
5.495 
4.622 
5.400 
9.338 

2.105 
2.503 
2.833 
1.513 
1.601 
1.25T 

do    No  2         

Newcastle      

Scotch               

Bitumens  are  viscous  matters,  ordinarily  brown  or 
black,  which  melt  with  facility  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water,  or  even  below  that — but  sometimes  at  a 
more  elevated  point ;  solid  bitumens  are  named  asphaltes. 

Bituminous  deposits  are  the  more  or  less  metamor- 
phosed products  of  organic  life  of  a  former  geological 
period,  which  have  been  forced  upwards  through  the  in- 
cumbent clays  or  later  deposits,  and  are  found  as  wells  or 
springs  of  viscid  fluid,  which  harden  at  the  surface  and 
edges  into  a  solid  asphalt.  Bitumen  is  found  as  a  fluid 
or  viscid  mass  in  various  parts  of  Europe  ;  in  France,  in 
the  Basaltic  Tufa  of  Auvergne,  in  the  Tertiary  sands  at 
Gallon  near  Pezenas,  at  Lobbsan,  and  at  Bechelbronn 
(Lower  Ehine),  in  the  upper  cretaceous  deposits,  at  Or- 
thez,  and  at  Cauperme  near  Dax,  at  Seysell  near  the 
junction  of  the  Khone  and  the  Isere  in  Switzerland  ; 
wherever  the  Alpine  limestone  (Calcaire  Alpien)  is  met 
with.  In  England,  elastic  bitumen  occurs  in  Derbyshire. 

Asphalt,  which  is  not  generally  found  in  Europe,  oc- 
curs in  a  thick  bed  at  Arlona  in  Albania,  but  is  chiefly 
derived  from  Lake  Asphaltites  or  the  Dead  Sea  ;  is  found 
at  Coquitambo,  near  Cuenca,  Peru  ;  in  the  West  India' 
islands,  Barbadoes  and  Trinidad — in  the  latter  place  form- 
ing a  lake  three  miles  in  circumference. 

The  deposits  of  bitumen  on  the  American  continent 
are  perhaps  as  numerous  as  on  the  eastern.  In  the 


32  LOCALITY   OF   BITUMEN. 

United  States,  an  extensive  development  occurs  in  the 
southern  part  of  California,  extending  400  miles  along 
the  western  side  of  the  coast  range,  close  to  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  Santa  Barbara  it  is  found 
as  a  brittle,  -dark  asphalt  ;  at  Los  Angeles,  it  oozes 
up  near  the  town,  and  forms  a  small  lake  of  liquid 
petroleum,  which  slowly  hardens.  At  San  Luis  Obispo, 
veins  of  bitumen  intersect  the  strata  which  are  there  ex- 
posed and  elevated,  and  in  summer  they  become  soft,  and 
overflow  over  the  surface  of  the  rock ;  in  winter  they 
are  almost  unimpressible  by  the  finger-nail. 

Liquid  .bitumen  was  found  on  False  Washita,  near 
Washington  Mountains,  Kansas,  by  Lieut.  Johnston, 
U.  S.  A.,  exuding  from  a  dark  sandstone.  In  Texas, 
within  100  miles  of  Houston,  between  Liberty  and  Beau- 
mont, is  a  small  bituminous  lake,  resembling  the  pitch 
lake  of  Trinidad  :  in  winter  it  is  covered  with  acidulous 
water  ;  in  summer^ petroleum  oozes  up.  Around  Burks- 
ville,  Ky.,  are  several  petroleum  springs.  Mather,  in  his 
reconnoissance  of  Kentucky,  points  out  several  places 
where  petroleum  might  be  collected. 

Near  Pittsburg,  on  the  Alleghany  river,  a  stream  of 
petroleum  was  found  in  digging  or  boring  for  salt,  which 
yields  at  times  1,800  bbls.  per  day  from  one  point. 

There  are  few  bitumens  which  do  not  harden  or  become 
more  solid  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere ;  this  may  arise 
from  two  causes  :  1st.  By  the  evaporation  of  the  petroline 
or  fluid  naphtha  portion,  which  the  majority  of  bitumens 
contain  ;  and  2d.  By  the  oxidation  of  the  bitumen  by 
exposure.  Solid  bitumen  or  asphalt  always  contains 
oxygen  as  an  essential  constituent,  and  the  fresh  fluid- 
like  petroleum  freshly  poured  out,  which  contains  no  oxy- 
gen, gradually  acquires  it  as  it  hardens  into  asphalt. 


NATURE   OF    BITUMEN.  33 

The  solid  bitumen  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  that  of  the 
Tar  Lake  of  Trinidad,  as  well  as  the  viscid  varieties  of 
that  island,  as  also  of  many  other  parts,  as  at  Bechelbronn 
in  France,  et  cetera,  are  apparently  produced  from  the 
oxidation  of  petroleum  and  their  composition,  as  ex- 
hibited in  the 'following  formulae  : 

Naphtha  or  petroleum,  C2o  Hie  or  C4o  H3a 
Asphalt  or  bitumen,  C4o  H32  Oo 

which  manifests  this  derivation  in  a  striking  manner. — 
(Muspratt.) 

The  specific  gravity  of  solid  bitumens  (asphaltes)  '] 
ranges  from  1.  to  1.10  ;  and  no  two  specimens  of  bitumen,  I 
solid  or  liquid,  can  be  said  to  have  an  identical  chemical  / 
constitution. 

Some  bitumens  are  totally  insoluble  in  alcohol ; 
others  are  in  part  soluble,  but  none  are  wholly  soluble  ; 
most  of  them  are  acted  on  by  ether  or  spirit  of  turpentine, 
and  leave  a  carbonaceous  residue,  or  some  other  bitumi- 
nous matter  not  attacked  by  these  solvents,  and  whose 
point  of  fusion  is  different  from  that  of  the  primitive  bitu- 
men. When  submitted  to  distillation,  they  are  in  part 
separated  into  the  liquids  originally  present,  and  in  part 
are  decomposed  into  oleaginous  liquids. 

According  to  the  researches  of  Boussingault,  the  semi-  f 
liquid  bitumens  are  mixtures  of  two  definite  principles, 
asphaltine  solid  and  fixed,  and  petroline  fluid  and  volatile. 
These  two  substances  may  be  separated  by  exposing  the  i 
bitumen  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  in  a  close  / 
vessel. 

Petroline  is  a  pale-yellow  oil,  having  a  sharp  taste, 

and  odor  of  bitumen  ;  specific  gravity,  .891  at  70°.     It 

stains  paper,  and  burns  with  a  smoky  flame  ;  it  boils  at 

536°,  and  the  density  of  the  vapor  is  9.415.     It  yields, 

3 


34  NATURE   OF   BITUMEN. 

on  analysis,  carbon,  87.3,  and  hydrogen,  11.9  in  100 
parts,  and  may  be  represented  by  the  formula  C4o  H32, 
which  corresponds  to  a  vapor  density  of  9.50  (4  volumes). 
Its  resemblance  to  naphtha  is  very  close.  Alcohol  dis- 
solves only  a  small  portion  of  petroline,  but  the  whole  is 
removed  by  keeping  the  bitumen  for  48  hours  at  a  tem- 
perature of  472°.  The  asphaltine  remaining  behind  is 
black,  very  brilliant,  and  has  a  conchoidal  fracture  ;  at 
540°  it  becomes  soft  and  elastic,  and  melts  before  de- 
composition ;  it  burns  like  resin,  and  yields  on  analysis : 

Carbon,         74.2  ) 

f  represented  by  the  formula 
Hydrogen,      9.9  V  ' 

~  1  r   f      k  ^40    **»8     ^6 

Oxygen,        15.1  J 

Asphaltine  would  thus  appear  to  be  merely  the  result  of 
the  oxidation  of  petroline. 

The  Burmese  naphtha,  or  Kangoon  petroleum,  else- 
where alluded  to  in  this  treatise,  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  perfectly  altered  bitumens  that  has  been  brought 
under  the  notice  of  chemists.  When  distilled  at  212°  F., 
it  yields  volatile  hydro-carbons  without  any  substance 
reacting  on  it ;  and  the  substances  which  are  thus  sepa- 
rated have  boiling  points  widely  apart,  «ome  of  them  being 
above  400°  F.  As  this  temperature  was  not  reached  in 
the  mere  distillation,  it  may  be  presumed  that  these 
hydro-carbon  oils  pre-existed  ready  formed  in  the  naphtha, 
and  when  the  most  volatile  of  these,  the  benzine,  rises,  it 
carries  over  with  it  the  vapors  of  the  other  hydro-carbons  ; 
the  vapors  of  all  of  this  class  readily  diffusing  with  each 
other.  The  liquid  having  the  lowest  specific  gravity,  and 
which  comes  over  first  by  distillation,  is  an  analogue  of  ben- 
zine, and  has  been  termed  Sliemvoodole ;  it  has  analogous 
properties  in  dissolving  grease,  &c.  It  may  be  eliminated, 
in  the  same  manner  as  benzole,  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 


NATURE    OF    BITUMEN. 


35 


The  steam  distillate  at  212°  amounts  to  one-fourth  of 
the  whole  crude  liquid.  The  residue  is  treated  with  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  which  purifies  it  from  foreign 
matters  (which  De  la  Rue  and  Mtiller  have  shown. to 
belong  to  the  colophene  series).  This  matter  thrown  down 
by  the  acid  is  of  a  black  color,  and  seems  to  be  in  every 
respect  identical  with  true  asphaltum.  The  purified 
fluid  is  transferred  to  a  still,  and  by  means  of  super-heated 
steam,  is  distilled  at  temperatures  from  300°  to  600°  F. ; 
at  450°  it  yields  a  paraffine-like  solid,  called  belmontine. 

Boussingault  gives  the  following  as  the  result  of  his 
analyses  of  various  bitumens  : — 


£ 

Bitumen  of 
Bechelbronn. 

Liquid  Bitumen 
from  Hatten, 
Lower  Rhine, 

Solid  Asphalt, 
Coxitambo,  Peru. 

Carbon             ... 

87.0 

874 

87.3          87  4 

Hydrogen,      .    .     . 
Oxygen  and  Azote,  . 

11.1 
1.1 

12.G 
0,4 

9.7            9.7 
1.7            1.6 

The  results  of  the  distillation  of  bitumens  will  be 
treated  of  under  the  chapter  on  the  products  of  their  dis- 
tillation. 

Naphtha,    mineral    naphtha,    petroleum,    rock     oil, 
Seneca  oil — under  these  terms  is  included  a  natural  pro- 
duct exuding  from "  the  strata  beneath  the  soil  in  many 
countries  ;  when  rectified,  it  furnishes  a  transparent  vola-  j 
tile  liquid,  which  Dumas  considers  as  a  simple  compound,  \ 
while  Blanchet  and  Sell,  Pelletier  and  "Walter,  and  others, 
look  upon  it  as  a  compound  fluid  containing  three,  if  not 
four,  liquids  of  varying  densities.     Naphtha  contains  110 
oxygen,  nor  has  the  liquid  any  tendency  to  unite  with  it  | 
under  ordinary  circumstances. 

In  Moldavia,  Galicia,  Lower  Austria,  in  France,  Eng- 
land, and  other  parts  of  the  globe,  paraffi ne  substances  are 


36  NATURE    OF   PEAT. 

occasionally  met  with,  which  by  chemists  and  mineral- 
ogists are  known  as  ozocerite,  earth  wax,  and  fossil  paraf- 
fine.  Hofstadter  has  pointed  out  their  general  affinities  ; 
and,  according  to  Hausman,  ozocerite  has  been  long  used 
as  a  candle  material  as  well  as  paraffine-earth  ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  carbon  86,  hydrogen  14.  Hatclietine  is  isomeric 
•with  the  foregoing;  as  also  Middfatomte,  examined  by 
Johnston,  and  found  near  Leeds,  in  England. 

Peat  or  turf  is  the  result  of  the  slow  decomposition  of 
grass,  moss,  carices,  sphagnum,  and  other  plants  which 
grow  in  moist  situations,  where,  becoming  saturated  with 
water,  decomposition  goes  on  slowly  and  in  a  different 
manner  from  what  occurs  with  vegetable  matter  exposed 
to  the  air.  In  the  case  of  peat,  the  bed  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter does  not  increase  after  being  first  formed,  while,  in  the 
case  of  turf,  the  annual  growth  of  sphagnum,  carex,  and 
erica,  goes  on,  and  dying  down  in  autumn,  adds  its  vege- 
table matter  to  that  previously  formed,  and  thus  every 
year  a  superficial  layer  of  vegetable  matter,  partly  de- 
composed, is  added  to  the  older  turf,  while  the  new  and 
annual  growth  flourishes  on  the  surface. 

When  freshly  cut,  peat  and  turf  contain  90  per  cent, 
of  water,  which  by  air-drying  is  often  reduced  to  60  per 
cent.  The  specific  gravity  varies  partly  with  the  amount 
of  water  present,  but  chiefly  from  the  amount  of  decompo- 
sition of  the  substance  ;  the  blacker,  denser,  and  older  the 
peat,  the  higher  is  its  gravity.  Karmarsh  found  samples 
of  Hanover  peat  to  vary  from  .113  and- '.240  in  young  peat, 
to  .564  and  1.039  in  old  peat ;  and  of  27  samples  of  turf 
examined  by  Sir  K.  Kane  and  Dr.  Sullivan,  the  maximum 
density  was  1.058,  and  the  minimum  0.235,  the  majority 
being  below  .600. 

The  chemical  composition  of  peat  differs  considerably 


CONSTITUTION    OF    HYDRO-CARBONS. 


from  that  of  wood :  the  following  samples,  from  various 
parts  of  Europe,  show  its  ultimate  composition  : — 


Locality. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Analyst. 

Vuleaire 

6040 

586 

33  &4 

Mulder. 

Holland  ' 

59  27 

541 

8535 

Philipst'own  (Ireland),     . 
Tuam 

60.47 
59.55 

6.09 
5.50 

82.54 
23.41 

0.886 
1.710 

Kane  and  Sullivan. 
Eonalds. 

The  following  taBle  contains  the  ordinary  ultimate 
composition  of  the  most  important  varieties  of  coal  and 
turf :  the  numbers  given  are  selected  from  analyses  made 
by  Sir  Robert  Kane  : — 


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen  and 
Nitrogen. 

Aib. 

Economic  vain* 
of  100  part*. 

Turf;     

58.09 

5.93 

81.37 

4.61 

171 

Lignite,  

71.71 

4.85 

21  67 

1.77 

208 

Splint  Coal   .         ... 

8292 

649 

1086 

013 

262 

Cannel  Coal,   .... 

83.75 

5.66 

8.04 

2.55 

260 

Cherry  Coal,     .... 
Coking  Coal,  .... 
Anthracite    .    .    . 

84.84 
87.95 
91  98 

5.05 
5.24 
392 

8.43 
5.41 
816 

i.68 
1.40 
094 

258 
271 
273 

38 


CONSTITUTION    OF    HYDRO-CARBONS. 


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CHAPTER  III. 


ON  THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  DESTRUCTIVE 
DISTILLATION. 


BEFORE  entering  fully  upon  a  description  of  the  vari- 
ous products  arising  from  the  distillation  of  coal  at  tem- 
peratures below  that  of  red  heat,  it  is  necessary  that 
something  should  he  known  of  the  changes  which  occur 
when  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  heat.  •  Experiment  has  shown  that  these  changes  vary 
in* proportion  to  the  range  of  temperature.  In  circum- 
stances where  the  material  operated  upon  is  in  contact 
with  a  plentiful  supply  of  heated  air  not  deprived  of  its 
free  oxygen  by  any  act  of  combustion,  the  whole  or  much 
the  greater  part  of  the  carbon  will  be  burned  off  as  car- 
bonic acid ;  some  carbon  may  remain  behind  mixed  with 
the  earthy  matters  of  the  organic  substance  forming  the 
ashy  coke.  The  hydrogen  in  the  substance  will  escape  as 
water  at  first,  and  if  much  be  present,  as  carburetted 
hydrogen ;  and  with  the  nitrogen  (if  the  substance  contain 
any)  as  ammonia,  as  a  carbonate  of  ammonia.  But  when 
the  exposure  to  heat  is  conducted  in  close  vessels,  as  in 


40  DESTRUCTIVE    DISTILLATION. 

distillation  in  retorts,  another  series  of  changes  occurs  ;  at 
the  outset,  when  the  heat  is  inconsiderable,  aqueous  vapor, 
organic  acids,  ammonia,  and  some  combustible  fluids 
soluble  in  water,  are  given  off.  As  the  temperature  aug- 
ments, carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  water,  and  a  number 
of  oleaginous  substances  not  soluble  in  water,  are  formed. 
When  the  temperature  rises  up  to  and  exceeds  a  red  heat, 
the  products  are  in  great  part,  or  wholly,  gaseous. 

Destructive  distillation  may  be  considered  as  combus- 
tion with  a  very  limited  supply  of  oxygen — merely  so 
much  as  is  contained  in  the  substance  itself.  The  results 
of  the  dry  distillation  of  substances  vary  in  so  far  as  they, 
contain  or  are  deficient  in  nitrogen.  Most  of  the  products 
are  common  to  both  conditions,  but  where  nitrogen  is  an 
element,  there  are  many  substances  formed  peculiar  to  it. 

In  the  cases  of  organic  substances  not  containing  ni- 
trogen, as  wood,  resin,  oils  and  fats,  &c.,  the  chief  products 
of  distillation  are — water,  acetic  acid,  naphtha,  or  wood 
spirit,  volatile  oil,  tar,  paraffine,  creosote,  &c. 

When  the  substances  contain  nitrogen  or  sulphur,  as 
coal,  &c.,  there  are  added  to  the  foregoing — ammonia, 
aniline,  leucol,  picoline,  lutidine,  &c.,  cyanogen  and  sifi- 
pho-cyanogen  compounds. 

And  in  all  cases,  an  ashy  carbonaceous  mass  remains 
in  the  retort  or  still,  known  as  coke.  Such  are  the  changes 
produced  at  temperatures  below  a  red  heat  ;  at  tempera- 
tures above  this  point,  a  series  of  gaseous  products  only 
are  produced  :  and  if  there  does  appear  in  the  ordinary 
manufacture  of  gas  a  large  amount  of  the  above  volatile 
liquids,  it  is  because  they  are  formed  when  the  retort  has 
from  any  cause  been  cooled  down  below  a  red  heat,  when 
they  immediately  appear,  and  are  distilled  over. 
I  It  is  the  temperature  at  which  coal  is  carbonized  in 


DESTRUCTIVE   DISTILLATION.  41 

close  vessels  which  determines  the  nature  of.  the  products 
— if  it  be  high,  gaseous  fluids  will  he  produced  ;  if  it  be 
low,  volatile  vapors  (liquids)  alone  will  form.  This  is 
now  so  well  known  by  manufacturers  of  gas,  that  the  ut- 
most care  is  exerted  to^keep  the  retorts  at  a  cherry-red 
heat  (1400°  F.)  <\^ 

The  results  of  dry  distillation  are  always  very  com- 
plex ;  the  number  of  products  very  great,  and  difficult  of 
separation. 

"  The  difficulty  of  tracing  the  decomposition  of  or- 
ganic matters  by  heat  arises  from  variations  in  the  tem- 
perature, and  the  non-removal  of  substances  already 
formed,  which  in  turn  are  themselves  decomposed,  and 
the  products  of  two  decompositions  become  mingled  to- 
gether. Thus,  under  careful  management,  the  distilla- 
tion of  acetic  acid  gives  acetone  and  carbonic  acid ; 
malic  acid  gives  water,  malic  acid,  and  carbonic  acid ; 
but  if  the  temperatures  change,  another  set  of  decomposi- 
tions occur,  a  new  set  of  products  are  formed,  arising  from 
the  disruption  of  the  atoms  of  the  first ;  thus  acetic  acid 
gives  marsh  gas,  and  malic  acid  gives  fumaric  acid  ; 
hence,  if  substances  be  taken,  through  which,  either  from 
their  mass  or  their  non-conducting  power,  the  heat  cannot 
be  uniformly  diffused,  a  number  of  different  reactions  take 
place  in  different  portions  at  the  same  time,  according  to 
their  respective  temperatures  ;  the  bodies  generated  in 
the  interior  are  altered  as  they  approach  the  surface,  and 
hence  a  very  high  degree  of  complexity  is  given  to  the 
ultimate  results." — (Kane.) 

This  is  exactly  the  condition  in  which  the  distillation 
of  coal  is  placed  ;  a  mineral  having  an  indifferent  con- 
ducting power,  and  in  comparatively  large  masses,  exposed 
to  a  high  temperature,  becomes  unequally  acted  on,  and 


42  DESTRUCTIVE    DISTILLATION. 

frequently,  while  the  interior  of  the  mass  is  evolving 
vapors,  which  subsequently  condense  into  oil,  the  exterior 
is  giving  off  gaseous  carburets  of  hydrogen  ;  hence  the 
necessity  of  having  the  coal  broken  into  small  fragments. 

In  the  production  of  volatile  oils  from  bituminous 
substances,  the  same  attention  to  temperature  must  be 
shown  ;  when  a  dull  red  heat  (about  800°)  is  obtained, 
permanent  gases  begin  to  form  in  abundance  ;  hence,  on 
no  account  should  such  a  temperature  be  allowed.  For  all 
practical  purposes,  700°  will  be  found  sufficient  for  the 
distillation;  a  temperature  of  650°  to  700°  well  kept 
up,  yields  the  largest  results  as  to  the  quantity  of  fluids 
obtained  ;  and  lower  temperatures  have  been  found  to 
answer  equally  well,  where  super-heated  steam  thrown 
upon  the  materials  has  been  used  instead  of,  or  as  an 
adjunct  to,  external  fire. 

When  substances  are  composed  of  only  three  elements 
— carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen — or  mainly  made  up  of 
these  three,  the  nature  of  the  change  which  they  will 
undergo  on  the  application  of  heat,  depends  to  a  great 
extent  upon  the  ratio  which  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
bear  to  each  other.  When  these  gases  are  present  in  the 
compound,  in  the  proportion  which  would  constitute 
water  when  united,  a  very  low  temperature  will  suffice  to 
draw  these  elements  together  to  form  water,  and  thus 
deprive  the  carbon  of  its  share  of  oxygen,  leaving  it  as  a 
dry,  hard  coke.  Should  the  substance,  however,  be  sud- 
denly subjected  to  a  very  high  temperature,  the  display 
of  affinities  would  be  somewhat  different  ;  for  while,  at 
comparatively  low  temperatures,  oxygen  prefers  to  unite 
with  hydrogen  rather  than  with  carbon,  at  higher  tem- 
peratures, the  affinity  of  oxygen  for  carbon  is  more  power- 
ful, and  thus  less  water  is  formed,  and  more  of  the  oxides 


DESTRUCTIVE  DISTILLATION.  43 

of  carbon — carbonic  oxides  or  carbonic  acid  :  the  hydro- 
gen thus  prevented  from  uniting  with  the  oxygen,  seizes 
an  equivalent  of  carbon,  and  forms  a  carbide  of  hydrogen, 
which  may  be  either  a  liquid  oil  or  a  permanent  gas,  ac- 
cording to  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  produced. 

But  if  the  ratio  of  hydrogen  to  oxygen  in  the  material 
was  not  in  that  proportion  to  form  water,  but  in  much 
larger  proportion,  then,  when  heat  is  applied,  the  excess 
of  hydrogen  seizes  on  the  carbon,  and  appropriates  it, 
producing  the  oleaginous  or  gaseous  carbides.  Now  the 
proportions  of  the  three  elements  in  which  the  carbon 
would  be  fully  saturated  with  either  of  the  other  two, 
might  be  expressed  thus  : — 

Carbon,       3  }  ,  (  Carbonic  acid=         C    02 

0  /  which  by  mutual  \  _  n    t\ 

Hydrogen,  3V.  <  Water=  H    0 

Oxygen,      3  )  UI  m  (  Carbide  hydrogen-  C2  H2 

A  greater  proportion  of  carbon  than  that  contained  in 
the  above  relation  would  not  tend  to  unite  with  the  other 
elements,  but  would  remain  behind  as  the  coke,  or  car- 
bonaceous residue  :  when  the  hydrogen  also  increases, 
then  carbides  of  hydrogen,  richer  in  both  elements  than 
the  formula  given  above,  will  be  produced,  rising  to  the 
ratio  of  024  H2e,  and  even  upwards. 

The  nature  of  the  products  then  varies  in  proportion 
as  oxygen  or  hydrogen  preponderates  in  a  mineral.  In  the 
former  case,  water  and  carbonic  acid  will  be  chiefly  formed  ; 
in  the  latter,  hydrogen  compounds  of  carbon  will  pre- 
dominate :  when  these  combine  at  low  temperatures, 
many  atoms  of  each  element  unite  with  the  other  to  form 
definite  volatile,  oily,  and  ethereal  liquids  ;  while  at  high 
temperatures  it  is  chiefly  as  gaseous  or  carburetted  hydro- 
gen, it  is  thrown  off ;  and  thus,  to  manufacturers  of 
mineral  oils,  the  question  of  suitable  temperature  for  dis- 
tillation becomes  the  all-important  one. 


44  DESTRUCTIVE   DISTILLATION. 

But  no  matter  how  large  soever  the  ratio  of  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  may  be  in  organic  substances  when  distilled 
in  close  vessels,  the  whole  of  the  carbon  is  never  taken 
up,  and  hence  the  residual  coke  or  charcoal  is  a  necessary 
result  of  dry  distillation. 

In  this  distillation,  all  of  the  oxygen  compounds  pass 
off  first,  the  richest  in  oxygen  having  the  start,  and  fol- 
lowed by  others  containing  less,  until  the  whole  oxygen  is 
removed,  when  the  hydrogen  compounds  then  are  set  free  ; 
thus,  in  the  decomposition  of  wood  in  close  vessels,  the 
order  of  production  is — water,  carbonic  acid,  acetic  acid, 
carbonic  oxide  ;  oils— compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
with  little  oxygen  ;  gas = carbon  and  hydrogen. 

In  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  by  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  wood,  the  object  is  to  get  the  greatest  quantity 
of  carbon  left  behind  ;  every  circumstance  which  would 
tend  to  remove  more  carbon  than  is  necessary  to  unite 
with  the  oxygen  present,  is  avoided  ;  when  wood  is  moist 
or  fresh,  when  placed  in  the  carbonizing  oven  or  retort, 
steam  is  first  produced,  which,  passing  over  some  portion 
of  the  wood  in  strong  ignition,  tends  to  be  decomposed 
into  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  each  of  which  uniting  with 
some  carbon,  forms  carbide  of  hydrogen,  HC,  and  car- 
bonic oxide,  00,  and  thus  a  less  product  of  charcoal  is 
the  result  ;  dry  wood  is  therefore  preferably  used.  But 
in  the  manufacture  of  oils,  the  object  is  not  to  obtain  a 
large  amount  of  coke,  or  residual  carbon,  but  the  reverse  • 
hence,  every  circumstance  which  would  tend  to  make 
carbon  unite  with  hydrogen  should  be  adopted.  The  ad- 
mission of  steam  does  this  in  the  abstract,  but  the  com- 
pounds so  produced  have  not  that  polyatomic  constitution 
which  the  mineral  oils  possess,  and  hence  it  cannot  be 
affirmed  that  the  formation  of  steam  in  the  retort,  or  its 


DESTRUCTIVE    DISTILLATION.  45 

admission  during  distillation,  increases  in  a  direct  manner 
the  formation  of  photogenic  oils.  But  of  its  indirect 
benefit  there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  it,  in  that  case,  prob- 
ably acts  partly  by  keeping  the  retort  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature, and  partly  by  assisting  to  carry  off  the  vapors  as 
they  are  generated,  and  by  thus  relieving  the  pressure  in 
the  retort,  tend  to  hasten  the  further  evolution  of  the  oils. 
Organic  substances  containing  much  carbon  are  gen- 
erally distilled  for  the  following  objects  : 

1.  To  obtain  charcoal. 

2.  vinegar. 

3.  gas  for  lighting  purposes. 

4.  photogenic  oils. 

And  for  the  economical  manufacture  of  each,  strict  at- 
tention is  required  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  dis- 
tillation is  produced.  The  1st  and  2d  objects  are  generally 
effected  simultaneously ;  but  the  3d  and  4th  cannot  be 
profitably  carried  out  along  with  the  1st  and  2d  objects  ; 
nor  can  Nos.  3  and  4  be  carried  on  together  without  loss 
of  either  class  of  products — the  temperature  necessary  to 
produce  No.  3  being  such  as  would  ultimately  decompose 
any  volatile  oil  produced. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  separation  of  the  con- 
stituents of  organic  substances  takes  place,  involves  a 
large  thermometric  range,  commencing  with  300°,  and 
running  up  to  2732°  Fahrenheit. 

The  tendency  of  destructive  distillation  is  to  produce 
compounds  possessing  more  simplicity  of  composition  than 
the  original  substance,  and  capable  of  sustaining  the 
higher  temperatures  at  which  they  form,  unaltered;  so 
that,  under  the  range  of  temperature  indicated,  liquids 
will  be  formed  when  the  temperature  is  least,  as  at  the 
commencement,  and  gases  when  the  heat  has  arisen  to 


46  DESTKUCTIVE    DISTILLATION. 

the  high  point  set  down  ;  and  as  in  the  lower  ranges 
where  liquids  are  produced,  the  effect  of  augmented  heat 
within  this  lower  range  is  to  lessen  the  complexity  of  the 
compound  by  dropping  or  reducing  its  amount  of  carbon 
or  of  hydrogen,  it  is  at  the  very  lowest  temperatures  that 
'  the  liquids  containing  the  highest  number  of  atoms  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen  will  be  found ;  and  when  the  tem- 
perature arises  to  that  of  formation  of  gas,  this  gas  (a 
carbide  of  hydrogen)  is  produced  at  the  expense  of  the 
complex  liquids  formed  at  first,  which  give  off  some  car- 
bide of  hydrogen  and  thus  have  their  proportions  simplified. 
Thus,  let  Cu  H8  lose  C2  H2  or  one  equivalent  of  olefiant 
gas,  and  Ci2  H6  remains  ;  if  two  proportions  of  this 
latter,  or  C2*  Hi2,  lose  six  equivalents  of  carbon  by  heat, 
Cis  Hi2  remains  ;  and  if  four  equivalents  of  Ci2  H6  or 
C4s  H24  lose  one  equivalent  of  olefiant  gas,  C2  H2,  one 
equivalent  of  marsh  gas,  C  H,  and  25  equivalents  of 
carbon,  there  would  remain  C20  H2i :  now  the  first  sup- 
position would  show  a  probable  formation  of  benzole  from 
toluene  :  the  second,  the  formation  of  cumene  from  the 
doubled  atom  of  benzole  :  and  the  third,  the  formation 
of  paraffin  from  a  quadrupled  atom  of  benzole. 

The  above,  though  not  perhaps  strictly  representing 
the  order  of  decomposition,  serves  to  show  the  result  of 
augmented  temperatures,  viz.  :  the  gradual  loss  of  C  H, 
and  consequently  the  destruction  of  the  polymeric  isomer- 
ic  hydro-carbons  formed  at  low  temperatures  ;  and  will, 
perhaps,  also  assist  in  showing,  what  is  desired  to  be  en- 
forced everywhere  in  this  work,  that  the  smallest  range 
of  temperature  above  that  necessary  to  evolve  or  produce 
photogenic  oils,  is  sufficient  of  itself  to  bring  about  their 
destruction. 


UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER   IV. 


ON  THE  PRODUCTS  OBTAINED  FROM  THE  DESTRUCTIVE 
DISTILLATION  OF  COAL. 


PEAT,  wood,  and  coal,  when  subjected  to  distillation 
at  a  red  heat,  or  any  temperature  sufficiently  powerful  to 
destroy  the  existing  condition, of  the  arrangement  of  their 
atoms,  afford  three  distinct  classes  of  products,  tar,  watery 
fluid,  and  gas.  The  proportion  of  these  to  each  other, 
and  the  exact  nature  of  the  several  products,  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  crude  material,  and  the  conditions 
under  which  it  is  distilled.  If  the  decomposition  be 
effected  with  great  rapidity,  that  is,  at  a  very  high  red 
heat,  the  products  will  be  mostly  gaseous — permanently 
elastic  compounds ;  and  the  proportion  of  tar  will  corre- 
spondingly diminish. 

The  quantity  of  tar  depends  upon  the  two  conditions 
stated,  and  the  proportion  of  photogenic  oils  derivable 
therefrom  is  dependent,  1st,  on  the  constitution  of  the 
crude  tar,  and  2d,  on  the  temperature  at  which  the  second 
distillation  is  performed. 

When  coal  is  distilled  in  close  vessels,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gas,  heavy  volatile  vapors  are  carried  over  by 


48  PROPERTIES   OF   TAR. 

the  heated  gas,  and  deposited  in  the  hydraulic  main  in  the 
form  of  tar. 

Tarry  matters  commence  to  be  generated  when  the 
temperature  rises  to  300°,  between  which  and  900°  tar  is 
formed  most  abundantly  ;  when  the  retort  or  still  exceeds 
that  temperature,  tar  is  formed  more  sparingly,  and  when 
formed,  it  is  in  part  decomposed  within  the  generating 
vessel. 

Tar  is  a  brownish-black  viscous  liquid,  thickening  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  having  a  peculiar  persistent  empyreu- 
matic  odor.  The  specific  gravity  of  tar  varies  from  880° 
to  975°.  That  furnished  by  coal  is  always  the  most  dense, 
while  turf,  schist  or  slate,  and  lignite,  furnish  the  lighter 
tars.  That  yielded  by  bituminous  schists  has  the  least 
specific  gravity. 

Tar  almost  always  has  an  alkaline  reaction  ;  seldom 
neutral  or  acid  :  it  solidifies  from  the  presence  of  paraffin, 
and  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  the  color  becoming  dark 
brown  (the  original  color  being  coffee-brown),  and  occa- 
sionally blackish. 

The  distillation  of  tar  from  coal  was  first  effected  at 
different  periods,  both  in  England  and  other  European 
countries,  without  any  profitable  return  ;  in  the  year 
1781,  the  Earl  of  Dundonald  invented  a  mode  of  distil- 
ling coal  for  that  purpose,  and  at  the  same  time  to  form 
coke. 

The  amount  of  tar  derived  from  close  distillation  of 
coal  varies,  as  stated  above,  with  the  exhibition  of  the 
heat.  When  the  process  is  conducted  slowly,  and  below 
700°  F.,  a  large  yield  is  obtained,  varying  from  16  to  60 
gallons  and  upward,  per  ton. 

The  amount  has  been  lately  shown  to  be  so  dependent 
on  the  temperature,  that  there  is  little  doubt  when  the 


PRODUCE   OF    TAR.  49 

latter  shall  be  exhibited   judiciously,  that    KK)   gallons 
per  ton  will  not   be   considered   an   unusual    amount :  \ 
one-half  that  amount   is   at  present  looked  upon  as  a  / 
large  yield. 

Pecks  ton,  in  his  history  of  G-as  Lighting,  published 
in  1823,  describes  the  results  of  the  treatment  of  coal 
tar  thus  : — 

"  When  coal  tar  is  distilled  in  close  vessels,  it  yields 
an  essential  oil  known  by  the  name  of  oil  of  tar  ;  this 
process  requires  to  be  carried  on  with  a  very  moderate 
heat."  After  describing  the  phenomena  occurring  in  the 
distillation,  he  says  the  oil  has  the  quality  of  inferior  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  might  be  used  for  varnishes  ;  alludes 
to  the  residual  pitch  as  resembling  asphaltum,  and  notices 
the  obtaining  a  lighter  fluid  (naphtha)  by  redistilling  the 
oil  of  tar  :  from  the  results  of  experiments  on  50  tons  of 
tar  he  estimates  the  product  of  1  gallon— 9J  Ibs.  avoirdu- 
pois, as 

6.84  Ibs.  Pitch, 
1.26  quarts  Oil  Tar, 
.46  pints  Spirits  of  Tar. 

This  rate  of  production  may  be  contrasted  with  the 
following  results  given  by  Muspratt  as  the  average  yield- 
ed by  the  present  improved  manufacture  : — 1  ton  of  coal 
yields  15  gallons  of  tar,  and  two  barrels  of  tar  of  4J  each, 
or  9  cwt.,  lose  by  distillation  Jth,  which .  is  composed  of  r 
If  cwt.  and  15  Ibs.  of  essential  oil,  and  1  quarter  and  13 
Ibs.  of  water  ;  6|  cwt.  of  fatty  pitch  remains  in  the 
retort. 

But  little  was  done  in  the  further  determining  either 
the  constitution  of  coal  tar  or  its  commercial  value,  until 
the  researches  of  Laurent  and  Reichenbach  led  Mansfield, 
Selligue,  and  others,  to  turn  their  attention  to  utilize  the 


50  PRODUCE   OF    TAR. 

liquids  derivable  from  it,  for,  in  fact,  the  distillation  of 
coal  has  been  considered,  until  very  lately,  only  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  production  of  gas  for  illuminating  purposes, 
in  the  manufacture  of  which,  tar  was  always  a  certain, 
and  frequently  a  large  product.  The  composition  of  this 
tar  has  been  examined  by  Kunge,1  Keichenbach,2  Lau- 
rent,3 Hoffman,4  Mansfield,5  Anderson,6  and  Williams.7 

In  examining  the  results  arrived  at  by  these  different 
experimenters,  a  difference  in  the  substances  obtained  is 
found,  from  which  it  would  appear,  as  might  be  expected, 
that  tars  formed  at  different  temperatures  contain  differ- 
ent hydro-carbons. 

In  the  details  of  the  manufacture,  more  minute  results 
of  the  amount  of  production  of  tar  will  be  given.  Where 
the  temperature  is  above  a  low  red  heat,  the  tar  dimin- 
ishes, and  the  quantity  of  tar  produced  by  distillation  of 
coal  for  gas  has  been  variously  estimated,  by  many  super- 
intendents of  gas  works,  at  12J  gallons  (282  cubic  inches) 
per  ton  ;  by  Peckston,  1^  cwt.  per  ton  ;  by  Lloyd,  2  cwt. 
per  ton. 

From  the  experiments  of  Barlow  and  Wright,  the 
following  amounts  of  tar  are  produced  from  the  following 
varieties  of  coal,  per  ton  : — 

Lbs.  weight  of  Tar. 

Pelton  Main,  102 

New  Castle  Cannel,  98 

Wigan,  248 

Youghgelly  Cannel,  225 


Annal  de  Poggend.,  XXXI.,  65,  512,  and  XXXIL,  308,  323. 

Ibid,  XXXI.,  497.         3  Annal  de  Chim.,  III.,  195. 

Ann.  der  Chem.  u.  Phar.,  XLVIIL,  1. 

Ibid,  LXIX.,  163,  and  Quarterly  Jour.  Chemical  Soc.,  7. 

Philos.  Mag.,  XXXIII.,  174. 

Chem.  Gazette,  1855,  p.  401. 


TAR    FROM   CANNEL    COAL. 


51 


Boghead, 
Lismahago, 
Ramsay  Cannel, 
Derbyshire  deep  Main, 
Wemyss, 


Lbs,  weight  of  Tar. 
738 

598 
295 
219 
210 


While  the  foregoing  serve  as  points  of  comparison  by 
which  the  bituminous  character  of  the  various  coals  may 
be  estimated,  it  forms  no  reliable  datum  as  to  the  absolute 
amount  of  tar  which  may  be  extracted  from  those  coals, 
As  this  was  a  bye-product  of  gas  making,  in  which  much 
of  the  tar  is  lost,  the  figures  here  are  very  much  below 
the  true  product.  Allowing  8^  Ibs.  as  the  weight  of  the 
gallon  of  tar,  the  Boghead  coal  produced  86  gallons,  which 
is  certainly  no  correct  estimate  of  its  real  yield  under 
lower  temperatures. 

The  Breekenridge  Cannel  coal  is  perhaps  the  most 
highly  bituminous  coal  known.  The  quantity  of  tarry  oil 
which  it  yields  is  32  Ibs.  to  every  100  Ibs.  of  coal,  or  nearly 
^d,  or  above  820  gallons  the  long  ton :  this  statement 
from  Silliman's  Journal  (Yol.  XX Y,  p.  285),  appears  an 
over-statement.  The  Haddock's  Cannel  coal  (Owsley 
Co.,)  yields  from  55  to  60  gallons  of  crude  oil  to  the  ton, 
and  from  27  to  30  of  purified  oil. 

The  yield  of  Kentucky  coal  is  given  by  Dr.  Peters,  in 
the  2d  report  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky,  the 
oil  being  that  produced  from  1000  grains  of  coal : — 


Crude  Oil. 

Ammoniac*! 
Water. 

Coke. 

G«B, 

cubic  inches. 

Breekenridge  Cannel,    

31820 

5210 

455. 

445 

Haddocks  Cannel,     
Union  Co.  mine,  bottom  part,     .    . 
Mulford's.  5  foot,  main  coal,  .    .    . 
Muddy  River  coal,     .    . 

243.50 
148. 
136.50 
10910 

5450 
38. 
6475 
119  SO 

D88L 

750. 
6S4. 
65950 

370 
465 
567 
370 

Ice  House  coal,    . 

108. 

73. 

T14 

465 

You^hiogheny  coal,  ...... 

136 

52. 

710. 

545 

52  DISTILLATION    OF    TUBF. 

Wagenmann  examined  turf,  brown  coal,  and  bituminous 
slate,  to  determine  the  yield  of  tar.  The  two  samples  of 
turf  were  from  Newmark  :  coal  A  and  B  from  the  Mark  ; 
C  from  Prussian  Saxony,  and  the  slate  from  the  Rhine 
country.  He  obtained  the  following  results  : — 


1.  Firm,  dark  brown  Turf,  yielding  at  110°,  33.58  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  6.76  per  cent,  of  ash. — 


100  parts  of  Turf  gave 
Coke,  27.70 

Ammoniacal  liquor,  50.01 

Tar,  4.89 

Gas  and  steam,  17.40 


100  parts  of  this  Tar  yielded 
Photogen,  8.90 

Solar  oil,  22.56 

Solidified  paraffin  mass,  39.73 
Carbonaceous  residue,  22.60 
Loss,  6.21 


2.  Brown  Turf,  with  a  fibrous  mossy  structure,  yielding  36.23  per 
cent,  moisture,  and  5.49  per  cent  ash. — 


100  parts  of  Turf  gave 
Coke,  25.77 

Ammoniacal  liquor,  58.03 

Tar,  5.19 

Gas  and  steam,  11.11 


100  parts  of  this  Tar  yielded 
Photogen,  7.32 

Solar  oil,  21.66 

Paraffin  mass,  46.03 

Carbonaceous  matters,        12.77 
Loss,  12.22 


3.  Brown  Coal  \A~),  dark  brown,  firm;  sp.  gr.=1.369,  yielding 
29.27  per  cent,  water,  and  7.018  per  cent.  ash. — 


100  parts  of  Coal  gave 
Coke,  37.66 

Ammonia,  36.69 

Tar,  5.96 

Gas  and  steam,  19.96 


100  parts  of  this  Tar  gave 
Photogen,  8.05 

Solar  oil,  45.47 

Parafiin  mass,  28.52 

Charcoal,  13.09 

Loss,  4.87 


4.  Brown  coal  (JS),  brown  color  when  dried,  breaking  readily,  with 
ligneous  fibres  intermixed,  and  here  and  there  crystals  of  sulphate  of 
iron  scattered  throughout;  sp.  gr. =1.252,  yielding  39.58  per  cent, 
water,  and  3.43  per  cent,  of  ash. — 


DISTILLATION   OF    COAL. 


53 


100  parts  of  Coal  gave 
Coke,  30.43 

Ammoniacal  solution,          48.41 
Tar,  4.02 

Gas  and  steam,  17.17 


5.  Brown  coal  ( £),  moist,  dark  brown,  masses  the  size  of  a  large 
bean;  sp.  gr.=1.209,  yielding  45.258  per  cent,  water,  and  9.83  per 
cent,  of  ash. — 


100  parts  Tar  yield 
Photogen,  9.10 

Solar  oil,  38.93 

Paraffin  mass,  39.43 

Carbon,  9.30 

3.24 


100  parts  of  Coal  gave 
Coke,  27.36 

9.51 
49.85 
0.20 
0.04 
13.04 


Tar. 

Water, 

Sal  ammoniac, 

Pyrogenic  oil, 

Gas  and  steam, 


100  parts  of  Tar  yield 
Photogen,  8.51 

Solar  oil,  41.48 

Paraffin  mass, 

(14  per  cent,  paraffin) 
Carbon,  5.55 

Loss,  3.36 


41.10 


6.  Paper  coal;  sp.  gr.= 1.264,  containing  19.9  per  cent,  moisture, 
and  23.52  per  cent,  ash.— 


100  parts  of  this  Slate  gave 

Residues,  with  some  ) 

Carbon=i  per  cent,  J 

Water,  some  potash,  ) 

and  ammonia,  j 
Tar,  25.11 

Gas  and  steam,  7.11 


35.( 


32.09 


100  parts  of  Tar  yield 


Photogen, 
Solar  oil, 
Paraffin  mass, 
Charcoal, 
Loss, 


32.50 
6.33 

51.25 
8.92 
1.00 


100  parts  of  the  substances  examined  yield,  there- 


fore— 


1.  Turf, 

2.  Turf, 

3.]  A 

4.  }•  Brown  coal,     B 
5.J  C 

6.     Paper  coal, 


Light  Oil. 
Photogen. 

0.435 

Heavy  Oil. 
Solar  Oil 

1.104 

Crude 
Paraffin. 

1.943 

0.380 

1.124 

1.389 

0.480 

2.710 

1.700 

0.366 

1.565 

1.585 

0.810 

3.940 

3.910 

8.160 

1.590 

12.870 

Paper  coal  is  consequently  the  most  profitable  material 


54 


DISTILLATION    OF   LIGNITE. 


for  the  production  of  the  light  oil  :  yet  the  use  of  brown 
coal;  and  even  turf,  is  profitable,  where  the  residual  coke 
is  a  desirable  substance  to  obtain. 

Schroeder  made  an  analysis  of  the  bituminous  slate 
from  Bruchsal,  which  yielded  in  100  parts — 2.5  to  3.  per 
cent,  water,  4.  to  6.  tar,  and  100  to  150  c.  'feet  of  gas  ; 
from  100  parts  tar,  62  parts  of  liquid  volatile  oil  was 
distilled,  whose  boiling  point  usually  ranged  between  100° 
and  350°. 

Engelbach,  an  assistant  in  the  Giessen  laboratory,  ex- 
amined the  bituminous  slate  near  Bielefeld,  which  gave 
71.20  per  cent,  of  ash.  100  parts  yielded — 

78  parts  fixed  residues,  with  charcoal. 

14  parts  watery  liquid. 

1.47  light  oil,  of  sp.  gr.  879. 

1.03  heavy  oil,  of  sp.  gr.  955. 

0.37  butyric  fat. 

0.87  asphaltic  fat. 

Fresenius  made  an  examination  of  the  brown  coal  of 
the  Westerwald  :  as  regards  the  products  obtained  by 
dry  distillation,  100  parts  gave — 


Mine. 

Variety. 

Coke. 

Tarry 
.^Liquid. 

Tar. 

Sp.  Gr.  of 
Tar. 

Gases. 

Oranien, 

Small  coal, 

31.9T 

44.72 

5.37 

1.043 

17.94 

Orainen, 

Lump  coal, 

34.86 

40.7T 

3.19 

0.952 

21.17 

Nassau, 

Small  coal, 

31.28 

43.69 

3.78 

1.064 

21.29 

Nassau, 
Oranien, 

Lump  coal, 
Lignite,  dried, 

31.22 
3421 

43.07 

42.83 

2.86 
5.61 

1.041 
1.079 

22.80 
17.35 

Nassau, 

Lignite,         ) 
air-dried,  f 

36.42 

5.88 

1.072 

12.60 

By  operating  on  the  crude  tarry  matters,  the  following 
ratio  of  products  were  also  obtained  by  Fresenius  : 
100  parts  of  air-dried  coal  yielded — 


PRODUCE   IN   OILS. 


55 


Mine. 

Variety. 

Crude  Tar. 

Thin  Oil. 

Thick  OIL 

Asphalt. 

Oranien, 
Oranien, 
Nassau, 
Nassau, 
Both  Mines, 

Small  coal, 
Lump  coal, 
Lump  coal, 
Small  coal, 
Lignite, 

5.37 
3.19 
3.78 
2.86 
5.88 

1.64 
0.85 
1.S4 
1.06 
3.01 

0.41 
0.60 
0.47 
0.26 
1.16 

0.72 
0.44 
0.02 
0.51 
1.16 

The  purification  of  the  oils  was  effected  by  treatment 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potash,  followed  by 
potass  ley,  and  then  another  distillation. 

Fresenius  estimates  the  yield  from  100  parts  of  crude 
oil,  to  be  70  parts  pure  oil. 

P.  Wagenmann  has  communicated  the  following  table, 
showing  the  products  of  distillation  of  the  various  raw 
materials,  which  yield  photogen  and  paraffin,  when  exam- 
ined with  the  care  which  the  analytic  chemist  bestows 
upon  such  investigations  : — 


_ 

Locality. 

Tar, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Crude 
Essence, 
from 
700  to  850 
•P-  «*• 

Crude 
Oil, 
from 
850  to  900 
sp.  gr. 

Crude 
Paraffin. 

Trinidad  pitch, 
Boghead  coal, 
Torbane  mineral, 

Trinidad, 
Scotland, 

70 
33 

31 

.875 
.860 
.861 

40 
12 
11 

20 
18 
16 

!| 

Dorset  shale, 
Rangoon  naphtha, 
Belmar  turf, 
Georges  bitumen, 
Paper  coal,  No.  1, 

Dorsetshire,  England, 
Burmah, 
Ireland, 
Neuwied, 
Siebengebirge, 

9 
80 
3 
29 
20 

.910 

.870 
.920 

.865 

.880 

1 
50 
1 

6 
20 
1 
14 
9 

1 

41          No.  2, 

u 

15 

.880 

5 

T 

No.  3, 

« 

11 

.880 

3 

6 

Va 

"              " 

Hesse, 

23 

.880 

6 

12 

1 

"              " 

Rhenish  provinces, 

11 

.880 

3 

5 

14                         14 

Bonn, 

4 

.930 

VlO 

3 

1JL 

Brown  coal, 

Saxony  (province), 
Kingdom  Saxony, 

T 

10 

.910 
.920 

2/10 
2 

3 
4 

% 

" 

6 

.915 

I/ 

4 

JAJ 

*4 

5 

.910 

It 

8* 

" 

6 

.910 

3? 

4* 

11 

" 

9* 

.920 

2 

5 

1 

" 

6 

.910 

1 

4 

V3 

" 

4 

.910 

1 

2 

u 

Ql 

.920 

2 

5 

2 

Thuringen, 

5 

.918 

1 

8/4 

•i 

5 

.920 

1  / 

8* 

V* 

Neuwied, 
Bohemia, 

.920 
.860 

3 

5 
5 

1 

Westerwald, 

5* 

.910 

u 

3* 

.910 

1 

1 

Nassau, 

4 

.910 

2 

H 

u 

3 

.910 

1 

1 

Frankfort, 

9 

.890 

2 

6 

56 


CONSTITUTION    OF   TAR. 


Crude 

Crude 

Name. 

Locality. 

Tar, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Essence, 
from 
700  to  850 

Oil, 
from 
850  to  900 

Crude 
Paraffin. 

sp.  gr. 

sp.  gr. 

Lignite, 
Lias  slate, 

Silesia, 
Vindee, 

3 
14 

.890 
.870 

g'/ll. 

2 
7 

\U 

Naphtha  clay, 
Turf, 

Westphalia, 
Gallicia, 
Newmark, 

5 
8 
5 

.920 
.890 
.910 

IV, 
1 

1 

i* 

f 

u 

Hanover, 

9 

.920 

5 

l/ 

Black,  or  Pit  coal. 

Steier  Mark, 

8 

.890 

1    1 

E* 

*/4 

u              u 

" 

6 

.890 

Vs 

4 

v« 

White  coal, 

Australia, 

17 

.870 

6 

8 

1 

Coal  Tar  is  found  to  contain  3  classes  of  substances — 
acids,  alkalies,  and  neutral  substances  ;  of  the  latter  class 
the  tar  is  mainly  composed.*  These  substances  may  be 
thus  set  forth : — 


Acids. 
Rosalie, 
Brunolic, 
Carbolic,  or  ) 
creosote,     f 


02 


Bases. 

Neutrals. 

Ammonia,  N  H3 

Benzin,  C]2  H6 

Aniline,  C12  H7  N9 

Toluene,  C14  H8 

Picoline,  C,a  H7  N 

Cumene,  C18  H12 

Quinoline       { 

Naphthaline,  C20  Hfl 

(leucol),      )     18      7 

Paranaphthaline,  C30  H12 

Parvoline,  C18  HJ3  N 

Chrysene,  C12  H6 

Pyredine,      C]0  H5  N 

Pyrene,  C1B  H8 

Lutidme,  C14  H9  N 

Paraffine,  C20  H21 

Colliding 

Ampeline. 

There  are,  in  all  probability,  many  other  substances 
not  yet  sufficiently  isolated  to  be  described,  which  are 
isomeric  with  many  of  the  preceding  :  this  is  most  proba- 
bly true  of  the  basic  substances.  The  interesting  fact 
about  these  substances  is,  as  may  be  seen  by  inspection 
of  the  table,  that  they  all  contain  only  one  equivalent  of 
nitrogen,  and  that,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  they  rise 
by  regular  gradations  of  two  of  carbon  and  two  of  hydro- 
gen, in  progressive  series,  thus — 10+5,  12  +  7,  14+9, 
18  +  13 — and  so  on  ;  besides  which,  they  are  all  isomeric, 
or  possess  t  exactly  the  same  composition  with  another 
series  of  bases  known  as  the  Aniline  series  to  chemists. 

*  Gerhardt,  Chem.  Organ,  Vol.  IV,  p.  426. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   TAR.  57 

Ammonia  exists  only  in  small  amount  in  the  tar 
proper,  but  the  water  distilled  over  with  the  tar  contains 
the  whole  of  the  ammoniacal  salts,  which  can  be  profitably 
extracted  :  the  remaining  bases  are  so  small  in  amount, 
and  their  properties  so  little  known,  that  they  are  objects 
of  chemical  curiosity.  In  a  description  of  the  distillation 
of  coals  for  practical  purposes,  the  consideration  of  the 
bases  may  be  therefore  passed  over. 

Of  the  acids  enumerated,  but  one  is  worthy  of  any 
notice— carbolic  acid  ;  under  the  name  of  creosote,  this 
substance  has  been  long  known,  and  widely  used  for  its 
many  valuable  properties. 

Among  the  neutral  bodies  the  coal  oils  belong ;  the 
photogenic  liquids  derived  from  the  distillation  of  coals 
are  all  enumerated  in  the  above  list,  which  contain  three 
liquid  and  six  solid  substances  :  excluding  the  latter,  the 
known  photogenic  liquids  in  tar  are  comparatively  few  in 
number  ;  the  amount  of  oils  or  liquid  substances,  com- 
pared with  the  solid  matter,  is,  however,  so  much  greater, 
that  the  great  bulk  of  the  tar  is  made  up  of  them :  of 
these,  perhaps  toluene  and  cumene  are  the  preponderating 
ingredients. 

Future  investigations  may  show  that  tar  contains 
among  its  neutral  bodies  many  other  constituents  than 
those  enumerated  :  when  homologous  bodies  co-exist  in  a 
compound  liquid  having  their  specific  gravity  and  boiling 
points  so  close  to  each  other,  it  is  a  matter  of  great  diffi.- 
culty  to  separate  each  in  that  purity  in  which  its  proper- 
ties may  be  examined,  and  also  difficult  to  state,  with 
accuracy,  all  of  the  substances  present. 

The  tars  of  bitumens,  bituminous  schists,  and  turf, 
contain  many  of  the  substances  enumerated  here,  but  they 
also  contain  fluid  oils  and  solids,  in  the  class  of  neutral 


58  CONSTITUENTS    OF    TAR. 

I 

bodies  not  found  in  coal  tar  :  hence,  the  photogenic  oils 
derived  from  these  sources  are  not  always  the  same  chemi- 
cal substances  with  those  now  under  consideration,  al- 
though their  photometric  value  may  be  precisely  the  same, 
dependent  upon  the  proportion  of  carbon  contained  in  the 
oil. 

The  most  natural  mode  of  describing  the  substances 
produced  in  distillation  would  be  to  take  the  products  in 
the  order  in  which  they  appear  in  the  condenser  or  re- 
ceiver, on  the  gradual  augmentation  of  the  heat  applied  ; 
this  method  is  accordingly  adopted. 

One  of  the  first  products  which  comes  over.,  in  com- 
pany with  a  large  amount  of  water,  is  a  mixture  of  vola- 
tile hydro-carbons,  which  has  received  the  name  of  crude 
naphtha,  and  when  further  distilled,  is  known  as  rectified 
coal  naphtha  ;  this  is  further  purified  by  mixing  it  with 
ten  per  cent,  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  agitating,  and 
setting  aside  for  some  hours  to  rest  :  when  the  mixture  is 
cold,  five  per  cent,  of  peroxide  of  manganese  is  added,  and 
the  upper  portion  submitted  to  distillation.  This  mode 
of  purification  has  .been  recommended  by  the  late  Prof. 
Gregory,  of  Edinburgh.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  recti- 
fied naphtha  is  0.850  :  it  is  used  extensively  as  a  solvent 
of  caoutchouc,  and  other  allied  gums,  and  also  of  resins 
for  the  preparation  of  varnish.  By  repeated  purification 
and  fractional  distillation,  what  is  termed  benzole  or  ben- 
zine, by  Pelouze,  and  others,  is  obtained :  naphtha  being  a 
heterogeneous  liquid,  made  up  of  several  hydro-carbons,  of 
which  benzine  is  the  most  abundant  and  important. 

The  numerous  applications  of  which  this  liquid  is  sus- 
ceptible, renders  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  substitutes 
for  alcohol,  ether,  turpentine,  and  other  fluids  in  common 
use,  as  a  menstruum  for  dissolving  gums,  resins,  and  other 


PROPERTIES    OF    BENZIN.  59 

commercial  products.  Its  property  of  dissolving  fat, 
renders  it  useful  for  cleaning  cloth,  leather,  &c.,  from 
spots  of  grease,  wax,  tar,  or  resin,  without  any  resulting 
injury  to  the  color,  or  permanent  odor  to  the  fabric. 

Mr.  Grace  Calvert  has  pointed  out  the  application  of 
this  property  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  :  it  had  been 
necessary  to  oil  "  slubbing  wool "  before  being  spun,  and 
necessary  to  remove  the  oil  subsequently,  so  that  the 
color  might  be  more  bright ;  but  this  removal  was  very 
difficult,  and  hence  the  brilliancy  of  the  colors  were  in- 
jured by  the  presence  of  the  oil,  and  the  carpet  soon 
became  faded  :  but  by  the  use  of  benzole  this  oil  can  be 
readily  removed,  and  thus  the  fabric  is  capable  of  receiv- 
ing a  brilliant  dye.* 

When  treated  with  strong  nitric  acid,  benzine  produces 
"  nitre-benzole,"  a  substance  which  is  now  much  used  as 
a  substitute  for  Oil  of  Bi'tter  Almonds,  in  perfumery  :  it 
is  not  acted  on  by  ordinary  sulphuric  acid,  but  with  the 
anhydrous  acid  it  forms  a  conjugated  acid. 

Benzole  boils  at  186°  ;  density  of  the  vapor  =  2.38. 
At  32°  it  crystallizes  in  a  gelatinous  mass,  which  melts 
at  44.6°  ;  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether.  On  account  of  its  rapid  evaporation, 
Mansfield  applied  it  for  the  purpose  of  impregnating  gases 
by  passing  them  through  a  layer  of  it ;  or  by  suspending 
cloths  soaked  with  it  in  an  atmosphere  renewed  by  a  fan 
or  blast.  The  air,  when  saturated,  burns  on  account  of 
the  quantity  of  vapor  present.  The  evaporation  of  the 
benzole,  in  this  process,  produces  so  much  cold  as,  after  a 
time,  to  check  further  evaporation ;  and  hence,  this  me- 
thod of  producing  gas  is  beset  with  practical  difficulties 
not  yet  fully  overcome. 

*  Trans.  London  Society  of  Arts. 


60  COMPOSITION   OF   LIGHT   OILS. 

The  formula  representing  the  composition  of  benzine 
is  Ci2  H6;  the  substance  yields  an  analysis,  in  100  parts — • 
carbon  86,  and  hydrogen  14.  As  it  contains  no  oxygen, 
and,  when  pure,  does  not  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air,  it 
is  used  to  preserve  the  oxidizable  metals,  as  potassium, 
&c.,  from  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  It  yields,  when 
burned,  nothing  but  carbonic  acid  and  water ;  when 
sufficient  air  is  not  supplied,  carburetted  hydrogen  is  pro- 
duced, and  carbon  deposited  unconsumed. 

The  light  oils  of  tar  which  remain,  after  rectification, 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  of  the  main  or  condenser,  are 
applied,  together  with  the  heavy  oils,  to  the  preservation 
of  wood  from  rotting.  The  permeation  of  the  pores  of  the 
wood  is  effected  by  placing  the  latter  in  close  iron  tanks, 
exhausting  the  air,  and  .  then  forcing  the  oil  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  wood  by  a  pressure  of  100  to  150  Ibs.  to  the 
square  inch. 

These  oils  are  usually  toluene,  with  some  cumene,  and 
form  a  transparent  yellow  fluid  of  .820  specific  gravity, 
having  the  odor  peculiar  to  such  distillates  ;  they  often 
contain  a  good  deal  of  sulphide  of  carbon  :  when  not  sepa- 
rated, the  sulphide  produces  unpleasant  results,  when 
used  in  rooms,  by  the  formation  of  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  physical  and  chem- 
ical properties  of  these  liquids  : — 

Toluene  was  discovered  by  Pelletier  and  Walter  among 
the  oily  products  arising  from  the  treatment  of  resins. 
Deville  obtained  it  from  resin  of  Tolu,  by  distillation. 
Cahours,  in  the  oily  liquid  which  separates  from  wood 
spirit,  by  adding  to  it  ;  and-  Mansfield  found  it  as  one  of 
the  residues  of  distillation  of  coal  tar  ;  he  obtained  it  by 
rectifying  tar,  by  fractional  distillation,  and  separating 
that  portion  which  distils  between  212°  and  382°  ;  this 


LIGHT    OILS.  61 

liquid  is  washed  with  half  its  weight  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid,  and  rectified  anew.  It  is  a  colorless  oil,  very  fluid, 
not  soluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
more  soluble  in  ether  ;  its  odor  is  similar  to  benzine  ;  spe- 
cific gravity=.870  ;  of  vapor=3.260  ;  it  boils  at  237°, 
(Grerhardt)  at  230°.  It  dissolves  in  fuming  sulphuric  acid, 
and  produces  a  conjugated  acid,  the  sulpho-toluenic  acid. 
Nitric  acid  transforms  it  into  an  oily  fluid,  nitro-toluene  ; 
chlorine  acts  rapidly  on  it,  forming  various  chlorides  ;  by 
oxidation,  it  is  converted  into  benzoic  acid.  The  formula 
representing  its  composition  is  Cu  H8. 

Nitro-toluene  crystallizes,  from  its  hot  alcoholic  solu- 
tion, in  broad  plates  :  it  dissolves  in  pyroxylic  spirit,  sul- 
phide of  carbon,  and  the  fat  and  volatile  oils  in  the  same 
degree  as  •  in  the  spirit  of  wine ;  it  is  very  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol. 

Cumene  (cumol)  accompanies  the  foregoing  in  the 
coal  tars  ;  and  in  the  oil  of  wood-spirit  it  is  mixed  with 
benzine,  xylene,  and  cymene,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  fractional  distillation  :  it  is  colorless,  lighter  than  water, 
of  a  sweet,  agreeable  odor,  and  volatilizes  unaltered.;  its 
boiling  point  is  314°  5  ;  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  essential  oils  ;  it  forms  a  conjugated 
acid  with  sulphuric  acid.  Nitric  acid,  in  the  cold,  does 
not  affect  it,  but  on  application  of  heat,  a  heavy  oil, 
nitro-cumene,  is  formed.  Its  formula  is  Cis  Hi2. — (Ger- 
hardt.) 

Both  of  these  oils  are  highly  fluorescent. 

These  photogenic  oils,  when  pure,  should  be  colorless, 
and  without  smell,  or  with  a  faintly  aromatic  odor.  Those 
which  smell  of  creosote  always  char  the  wicks,  and  pro- 
portionally with  the  amount  of  the  impurity.  The  char- 
ring of  the  wick  is  consequently  a  test  of  an  impure  oil,  or 


62  LIGHT    OILS. 

one  which  contains  carbolic  acid,  as  Vohl  has  distinctly 
proved.  The  article  sold  under  the  name  of  double  puri- 
fied coal  oil  contains  6  to  7  per  cent,  of  creosote.  The 
oil  obtained  from  paper  coal  on  sale  in  the  German  towns, 
contains  10  to  12  per  cent.  The  method  of  separating 
the  creosote  is  described  further  on. 

These  two  oils  are,  as  has  been  already  stated,  the 
valuable  photogenic  oils,  and  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 
product.  It  is  not  possible  to  state,  a  priori,  how  much 
of  each  of  these  are  present  in  any  coal  oil,  as  it  depends 
on  the  temperature  at  which  they  are  distilled.  These 
oils  commence  to  come  over  with  the  last  portions  of 
naphtha  (benzole),  and  they  continue  to  be  distilled  until 
the  temperature  approaches  400°.  As  the  boiling  point 
of  toluene  is  237°,  and  that  of  cumene  314°,  the  first  por- 
tions of  the  light  oil  will  be  chiefly  toluene,  and  the  last 
portions  cumene,  and  if  the  distillation  be  conducted  from 
the  outset  at  a  very  high  temperature,  but  little  toluene 
may  be  formed.  The  lighter  the  oil,  the  better  is  it 
adapted  for  burning  in  lamps  ;  and  hence  the  tar  distilled 
at  temperatures  not  exceeding  320°  contain  most  toluene, 
while  the  cumene  preponderates  when  the  temperatures  is 
rapidly  driven  up  to  and  sustained  near  400°.  This  result 
of  a  high  temperature  should  be  attended  to  in  the  manu- 
facture. 

Ampeline  is  a  substance  resembling  creosote,  which 
Laurent  has  obtained  when  the  distillation  runs  between 
392°  and  536°.  The  crude  oil,  washed  several  times  with 
concentrated  oil  of  vitriol,  is  then  mixed  with  7V  or  ^  of  its 
volume  of  caustic  potassa  in  solution  ;  allowed  to  rest  for 
24  hours,  the  liquid  separates  into  two  layers,  of  which 
the  lower  watery  solution  is  the  most  abundant :  this  is 
drawn  off,  and  agitated  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  sepa- 


CARBOLIC    ACID.  63 

rates  an  oily  liquid  lighter  than  the  fluid  :  this  oil  is 
drawn  off  with  a  pipette,  and  treated  with  water,  in  which 
it  dissolves,  and  separates  thus  any  adhering  oil ;  this  re- 
maining fluid  is  ampeline  ;  almost  pure,  it  resemhles  a 
fluid  fat  oil,  dissolves  in  alcohol,  and  in  all  proportions  in 
ether  ;  does  not  solidify  at  35°  below  zero. 

The  oils  which  distil  over  between  340°  and  400°,  or 
even  440°,  contain  creosote.  This  substance,  first  de- 
scribed by  Reichenbach,  is  not  now  generally  admitted 
among  the  list  of  true  compounds,  but,  if  not  identical 
with  carbolic  acid,  at  least  contains  a  large  percentage 
of  that  substance  united  with  it  ;  it  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.037,  and  boils  at  397°  4 ;  on  exposure  to 
cold,  it  does  not  crystallize  ;  this  last  property,  and  its 
boiling  point,  are  the  only  differences  which  exist  between 
it  and  carbolic  acid,  and  as  the  other  properties  and  uses 
of  both  are  alike,  the  one  description  will  suffice. 

They  are  obtained  from  the  oils  by  treat  ing  the  latter 
with  potash,  agitating,  and  distilling  the  mass ;  by  re- 
peated rectifications  with  solid  potash,  the  pure  liquid  is 
obtained  ;  the  potash  liquor  is  treated  with  an  acid,  when 
the  impure  carbolic  acid  separates. 

It  is  an  oily  liquid,  highly  refractive,  fluoresceut. 
Carbolic  acid  crystallizes  by  evaporation  from  its  ethereal 
solution  in  small  prisms,  which  occasionally  melt  into 
liquid  at  temperatures  below  which  the  crystals  formed. 
The  crystals  melt  at  94°.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure 
carbolic  acid  is  1062  to  1065.  It  is  powerfully  antiseptic 
and  poisonous,  and  coagulates  albumen  ;  its  preserving 
property  is  not  due  to  the  latter  quality  ;  it  unites  with 
bases,  and  forms  salts.  Sulphuric  acid  forms  a  coupled 
acid  with  it  ;  nitric  acid,  chlorine  and  bromine,  form  acids 
with  it  by  substitution. 


64  CKEOSOTE— CARBOLIC    ACID. 

The  liquid  with  these  properties  is  obtained  from  coal 
tar,  and,  therefore,  almost  all  the  substance  now  found  in 
cumene  under  the  name  of  creosote,  is,  in  reality,  carbolic 
acid.  Wood-tar  furnishes  the  variety  of  this  acid  known 
as  creosote. 

The  composition  of  carbolic  acid  is  expressed  by  the 
formula  Ci2  He  0% ,  and  may  be  supposed  to  be  formed 
from  benzole  Ci2  H  6 ,  by  the  addition  of  2  equivalents  of 
oxygen. 

Carbolic  Acid,  or  Creosote,  possesses  extraordinary 
antiseptic  properties,  presenting,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
putrefaction  of  animal  substances.  Mr.  Calvert  has  used 
it  as  a  preservative  of  bodies  for  dissection,  and  also  to 
preserve  skins  of  animals  intended  to  be  stuffed. 

It  has  been  much  employed  to  produce  carbazotic 
acid,  by  digesting  it  with  nitric  acid,  aided  by  heat — a 
valuable  dye-stuff,  which  gives  magnificent  straw-colored 
yellows  on  silk  and  woollen  fabrics  :  the  acid  is  easily 
made  pure,  arid  at  a  moderate  cost,  and  greens  as  well  as 
yellows  are  produced,  which  do  not  fade.  Mr.  Calvert  has 
introduced  this  acid  into  use.  Mr.  Bell,  of  Manchester, 
surgeon,  has  used  carbazotic  acid  medicinally  as  a  febri- 
fuge, Mr.  Calvert  having  called  his  attention  to  its  intense 
bitter  taste,  and,  in  the  hands  of  the  former,  it  has  proved 
a  valuable  remedy  for  intermittent  fever.  Mr.  Calvert  has 
also  applied  it  as  an  agent  for  preserving  tanning  matters 
from  undergoing  any  decomposition  by  exposure  to  air, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  convert  the  tannin  present  into 
sugar  and  gallic  acid,  which  results  in  the  destruction  of 
the  value  of  the  tanning  material,- since  gallic  acid  has  no 
tanning  properties,  and  tends  even  to  remove  the  mordants 
from  the  fabric.  By  adding  a  small  quantity  of  carbolic 
acid  to  the  extracts  of  tanning  matter,  they  may  be  kept 


ANILINE — COUP   OIL.  65 

and  employed  by  the  dyer  as  a  substitute  for  the  crude 
tanning  material. 

That  portion  of  the  fluid  distilled  over  at  temperatures 
exceeding  400°,  contains  but  little  toluene,  and  is  chiefly 
cumene.  It  also  contains  many  of  the  bases  enumerated, 
some  carbolic  acid,  and  a  large  quantity  of  paraffine  ;  or 
if  the  tar  had  been  made  at  high,  heats,  naphthaline  ;  to 
these  may  be  added  chrysene  and  pyrene. 

The  heavy  oil  contains  a  singular  organic  product,  first 
discovered  by  Fritsche  and  Runge,  and  called  by  them, 
"  Kyanol,"  or  "  Aniline/'  which  possesses  the  property  of 
giving  with  bleaching  powder,  nitric  acid,  and  othei 
re-agents,  a  magnificent  blue  color. 

Aniline  is  a  colorless  fluid,  strongly  refractive,  with  a 
penetrating  odor ;  specific  gravity =1.020,  and  a  boiling 
point  of  182°  ;  it  dissolves  in  cold  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  becoming 
yellow  and  resinous  ;  the  blue  reaction  produced  becomes 
red  if  acids  be  added  to  the  solution,  and  crystals  of 
picrotoxic  acid  are  produced  ;  this  reaction  distinguishes 
this  base. 

The  specific  gravity  and  chemical  constitution  of  the 
light  and  heavy  oils,  vary  in  relation  to  the  temperature 
at  which  they  were  distilled  ;  and  perhaps  no  two  distilla- 
tions give  exactly  the  same  relative  mixture  of  the  various 
hydro-carbons  of  which  they  are  composed  ;  for  it  must 
be  remembered,  as  already  stated,  that  Coal  Oils,  as  they 
are  termed,  are  not  pure  chemical  ^substances,  but  articles 
of  manufacture  ;  each  of  the  commercial  oils  containing 
2  or  3  of  the  liquid  hydro-carbons,  holding  in  solution 
small  Quantities  of  the  solid  matters,  such  as  paraffine, 
naphthaline,  chrysene,  &c. 

The  term  Coup  oil  has  been  applied  to  the  oil  obtained 


66  COUP  OIL. 

by  distilling  tar  at  high  tempera tures,  whereby  little,  if 
any,  paraffine  is  produced,  the  naphthaline  being  then 
formed  ;  the  distillation  being  conducted  at  700°  F.,  and 
the  condenser  having  a  temperature  between  150°  and 
175°.  The  distillate  is  washed  with  a  hot  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  and  afterwards  with  oil  of  vitriol  ;  the  clear 
liquid  drawn  off  is  again  mixed  with  caustic  soda  solution 
of  25°  Beaume.  The  clear  oils  drawn  off  are  then  dis- 
tilled in  a  hemispherical  cast  iron  retort,  with  a  condenser 
heated  to  150°  and  kept  thereat ;  distillation  goes  on 
until  450°  is  attained,  when  a  fresh  receiver  is  affixed,  and 
the  temperature  pushed  to  700°.  This  last  oil  is  washed 
with  soda  and  acid  as  before,  and  again  distilled  in  an  iron 
retort,  with  12  Ibs.  hydrate  potass,  or  soda,  mixed  with  1 
gallon  of  water  for  every  100  gallons  of  oil.  The  oil 
which  condenses  at  450°  F.  is  collected  until  650°  F.  is 
raised,  when  the  operation  is  stopped.  This  oil  is  Coup 
oil. 

The  first  oil  obtained  is  what  is  usually  known  as  dead 
oil,  which  contains  naphtha,  naphthaline,  and  cymene. 
Coup  oil  is  not  produced  by  the  direct  distillation  of  coal 
at  low  temperatures,  but  always  from  the  secondary  dis- 
tillation of  tar  at  high  temperatures,  or  under  conditions 
that  naphthaline  may  be  formed  in  abundance  ;  its  pres- 
ence in  coup  oil  prevents  the  latter  from  being  burned  in 
lamps  as  paraffine  oil  is,  as  the  quantity  of  smoke  pro- 
duced is  very  great.  Coup  oil  is  occasionally  formed  in 
the  tar  of  gas  works,  where  the  temperature  exhibited  has 
been  high.  Mr.  Boss,  of  England,  obtained  a  patent  for 
making  this  Coup  oil,  in  May,  1853. 

On  account  of  the  great  variety  of  constitution  in  the 
liquids  distilled  from  coal,  it  will  be  unnecessary  here  to 
specify  their  distinct  physical  properties,  as  these  will  be 


PARAFFINE.  67 

alluded  to  in  describing  their  commercial  manufacture  :  a 
slight  notice  of  the  characters  of  the  solid  neutral  com- 
pounds, when  obtained  in  a  pure  and  isolated  form,  will 
suffice  to  complete  this  account  of  the  products  of  the 
distillation  of  coal. 

PARAFFINE  is  always  produced  by  the  distillation  of 
organic  substances  at  temperatures  below  a  red  heat ; 
bituminous  substances  yield  the  largest  amount  of  paraf- 
fine  ;  but  it  may  be  readily  obtained  by  distilling  wax 
with  lime.  The  oil  which  comes  over,  solidifies,  and  the 
paraffine  may  be  obtained  by  pressure  between  folds  of 
bibulous  paper.  In  the  distillation  of  coals,  it  occurs  as 
one  of  the  last  products,  concentrating  itself  in  the  last 
portions  of  the  heavy  oils,  which  sometimes  become  so 
thick  as  to  solidify  below  80°.  This  constitutes  what  is 
commonly  called  "  paraphinized  oil,"  in  the  language  of 
patent  processes. 

The  paraffine  is  separated  from  the  oil  by  cold,  and  by 
a  centrifugal  apparatus,  then  melted  and  run  into  tin 
moulds,  and  afterwards  subjected  to  cold  pressure  "first, 
and  finally  pressed  when  warm,  and  treated  with  50  per 
cent,  of  oil  of  vitriol,  which  destroys  the  coloring  matter, 
and  lastly  with  a  potash  lye  ;  it  is  then  again  melted, 
and  run  into  moulds. 

It  has  great  stability — sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  and 
nitric  acid,  below  212°,  exert  no  action  upon  it  Its 
property  of  not  being  acted  on  by  acids  or  alkalies,  renders 
it  suitable  for  stoppers  for  vessels  holding  such  liquids  ; 
also  for  moulds  for  galvanoplastic  purposes,  where  the 
metal  is  not  intended  to  cover,  as  a  substitute  for  fat  now 
used. 

Paraffine  melts  at  116°  (Eegnault),  111°  (Kane),  and 
by  several  experiments  made  with  care  at  108°.  It  boils 


68  PABAFFINE. 

at  700°,  and  then  begins  to  undergo  decomposition  ;  it 
dissolves  sparingly  in  alcohol  (4  per  cent.),  but  is  very 
soluble  in  camphene,  and  in  ether,  and  may  be  purified 
by  treatment  with  these  last  two  liquids.  It  burns  in  the 
air  with  a  clear  white  flame,  but  requires  a  draught  or 
large  supply  of  air  to  prevent  sooting  ;  as  a  candle  mate- 
rial, it  requires  a  'glass  shade  to  produce  complete  combus- 
tion. It  is  a  ready  solvent  of  some  resins,  gutta  percha, 
and  caoutchouc,  with  which  it  unites  in  all  proportions, 
and  destroys  its  elastic  property.  As  it  contains  no  oxy- 
gen, it  might  be  used  for  the  same  uses  as  benzule  for  pre- 
venting oxidizable  metals  from  contact  with  the  air. 
From  not  uniting  with  acids  and  alkalies  it  received  its 
name  (from  parum  affinis),  and  this  property  has  been 
applied  to  make  paraffine  paper,  for  holding  caustic  alka- 
line samples.  It  might  also  form  a  tubing  substance  to 
transmit  caustic  gases  or  vapors.  It  is  too  costly,  as  yet, 
to  supersede  white  wax,  in  the  manufacture  of  candles. 

Its  formula  is  C20  H2i  in  most  examinations,  but  Dr. 
Anderson  states  that  the  composition  and  properties  of 
paraffine  vary  with  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived, 
and  so  of  its  melting  point  also. 

Filipuzzi  examined  a  sample  of  paraffine  made  by 
Young,  in  Glasgow,  from  bituminous  slate,  which  was 
white,  crystalline,  without  odor  or  taste,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  .861,  at  590°  F.,  and  a  melting  point  of  110°  at 
131°  F.  ;  it  partially  dissolves  in  alcohol,  and  separated 
by  cooling.  The  mass,  when  separated  from  the  alcohol, 
and  placed  under  the  microscope,  showed  three  different 
forms,  needle  crystals,  angular  grains,  and  glistening 
mother-of-pearl  scales  ;  by  further  treatment,  he  was 
enabled  to  separate  nine  distinct  portions,  each  of  which 
had  a  different  melting  point : 


PARAFFINE.  69 

Variety— 

12345  6789 

Temperature— 

113*        US'        120'        121*        123'  5'        133°  5'       136°        137°        139* 

The  ultimate  analysis  of  these  bodies  showed  that 
they  were  isomeric  or  polymeric  hydro-carbons,  viz. : 

Melting  point—  113"  121°  135°  5'        137"  139' 

(  C          85.47          85.93  85.72  85.77          85.69 

Constitution--^         U29          1423  1431  14a          1429 

By  distillation,  these  yielded  a  thin,  fatty  acid,  which, 
treated  with  potash,  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol,  yielded 
butyric  ether.  From  the  experiments  made  by  him, 
Filipuzzi  thinks  that  paraffine  is  a  derivative  of  fatty 
bodies,  and  is  formed .  from  them  by  some  process  of  re- 
duction. 

Dr.  Anderson,  of  Glasgow,  who  has  examined  paraf- 
fine, states  that  the  products  of  its  distillation  are  hydro- 
carbons, radicals  of  alcohol,  density,  .750,  and  boiling  at 
143°  C.  Bolley  has  found  that  most  of  the  commercial 
paraffine  contains  stearic  acid  :  also,  that  when  paraffine 
is  melted  it  is  then  readily  acted  on  by  chlorine,  giving 
off  bubbles  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas,  and  retaining  some 
acid  tenaciously.  In  the  compound  thus  formed  some  of 
the  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  chlorine.  It  is  tolerably  sol- 
uble in  benzine,  and  the  solution  may  be  readily  spread 
upon  paper,  wood,  &c.  He  suggests  the  name  of  chlorof- 
fine  for  this  substance. 

The  lowest  melting  point  of  paraffine  is  given  by  Lau- 
rent as  91°.4  ;  the  highest,  that  by  Bolley,  as  149°.9  F. 

Dr.  A.  found  that  the  melting  point  of  paraffine 
varies  according  to  the  source  from  which  it  is  obtained. 
That  from  Boghead  coal  melting  or  crystallizing  at  114°, 
while  that  from  Eangoon  naphtha  melts  at  140°,  and  that 
of  Turf  at  116°.  That  produced  from  bituminous  coal,  by 
Atwood's  process,  melts  at  110°  ;  and  Dr.  Anderson 


70  NAPHTHALIN — CHRYSENE, 

thinks  the  formula  C2o  H2i  does  not  represent  the  com- 
position of  these  various  paraffines  ;  that  the  formula 
C2o  H20+H2,  or  more  exactly,  C40  H42 ;  perhaps  C42  H^ 
and  €44  H4e  might  embrace  some  of  the  varieties. 

Naphthalin  is  a  colorless,  inflammable  solid,  crystal- 
lizing in  plates  ;  it  comes  over  in  the  receiver  mixed  with 
leucol,  pyrrhol,  kyanol,  carbolic,  rosalic,  and  brunolic 
acids,  these  forming  the  oily  liquid  separated  by  distilla- 
tion with  water  from  the  pitchy  residuum  of  coal  tar. 
The  formula  is  C2o  H8,  being  the  solid  which  contains 
the  highest  quantity  of  carbon  ;  insoluble  in  cold,  and 
slightly  soluble  in  boiling  water  :  specific  gravity =1.048  ; 
of  vapor=4.52S  ;  it  melts  at  175°,  and  boils  at  428°,  and 
condenses  unaltered  in  pearly  laminae  ;  it  is  peculiarly  the 
product  of  high  temperatures,  and  is  yielded  by  alcohol 
and  organic  matters,  at  a  state  of  high  red  heat.  The 
crystals  of  naphthalin  may  be  separated  from  the  impuri- 
ties by  a  cold  of  149,  and  pressure  between  folds  of  bibu- 
lous paper. — (Graham.) 

It  forms  with  sulphuric  acid,  two  acids,  and  with 
chlorine,  yields  a  series  of  compounds  of  great  theoretical 
interest,  but  of  no  practical  value. 

Anthracene  is  a  substance  associated  with  the  fore- 
going in  gas  tar,  and  is  isomeric  with  it,  the  formula 
being  C30  Hi2 ;  it  has  higher  boiling  and  fusing  points, 
may  be  distilled  unaltered  ;  insoluble  in  water — copiously 
in  spirit  of  turpentine. 

Para-Naphthalin  is  polymeric  with  the  foregoing  ;  it 
melts  at  356°,  and  boils  at  '392°,  subliming  in  foliated 
crystals.  It  is  readily  acted  on  by  chlorine  and  nitric 
acid  ;  its  formula  is  CSQ  Hi2. 

Chrysene  and  Pyrene  are  two  hydro-carbons,  first  de- 
scribed by  Laurent,  and  are  produced  in  the  distillation  of 


PYRENE — RESIDUAL   MATTERS.  7l 

resins,  as  well  as  in  coal.  They  are  among  the  last  prod- 
ucts of  distillation,  when  the  mass  becomes  yellowish-red, 
thick  and  pasty,  clogging  the  neck  of  the  retort,  and  con- 
taining crystalline  plates  ;  on  distillation,  the  pyrene 
passes  over,  and  the  chrysene  collects  in  the  neck ;  they 
are  then  easily  separable  by  ether,  in  which  the  pyrene 
dissolves  more  readily. 

To  obtain  the  chrysene,  the  coloring  matter  in  the 
neck  of  the  retort  is  treated  with  ether,  which  removes  the 
pyrene,  or  some  oily  matters,  leaving  the  chrysene  in  a 
pulverulent  state  :  it  is  crystalline,  inodorous,  insipid,  of 
a  fine  yellow  color,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Ether 
dissolves  it  sparingly  ;  spirit  of  turpentine,  boiling,  dis- 
solves a  greater  amount  than  ether,  which  is  deposited 
yellow  and  floreulent  on  cooling  ;  it  melts  at  230°  to  235° 
Cent.,  and  on  cooling,  solidifies  into  a  yellow  mass,  com- 
posed of  needle  crystals,  or  thin  plates  ;  it  distils  a  little 
above  its  boiling  point.  It  is  composed  of — carbon,  94.7  ; 
hydrogen,  5.3=100,  and  its  formula  is  da  H4. 

Pyrene,,  Cio  H2,  a  white  crystalline  solid,  is  associated 
with  the  foregoing,  than  which  it  is  more  fusible. 

When  tar  is  distilled,  a  semi-solid  mass  is  left  in 
the  still.  When  the  distillate  is  rectified,  a  solid  pitch 
or  bitumen  remains ;  these  are  utilized  for  various  pur- 
poses. 

The  carbonaceous  mass  left  at  the  first  distillation,  is 
mixed  with  the  ammoniacal  water,  and  forms  a  good 
manure.  The  tarry  residuum  of  the  second  distillation  is 
used  as  asphalt  is,  for  coatings. 

There  appear  to  be  varieties  of  coal,  which,  whether 
produced  by  differences  in  the  vegetable  species  originally 
composing  them,  or  by  different  conditions  of  decomposi- 
tion, produce  different  reactions  when  subjected  to  dry 


72  SLOW   DECOMPOSITION   OF   COAL. 

distillation.  It  is  notorious  to  practical  men,  that  certain 
coals  yield  paraffine  at  lower  temperatures  than  others, 
and  that  some^  coals  produce  naphthalin  at  temperatures 
which  only  aid  in  forming  paraffine  in  the  rest. 

When  the  order  of  decomposition  of  an  organic  sub- 
stance is  spoken  of,  it  must  be  understood  only  as  referring 
to  the  exact  condition  under  which  it  takes  place  ;  for 
under  different  conditions,  a  different  order  of  decomposi- 
tion takes  place,  and  a  new  set  of  products  are  the  result : 
for  example,  it  is  usual  to  speak  of  coal,  that  when  sub- 
jected to  a  low  degree  of  heat,  it  decomposes  so  as  to 
form  inelastic  or  condensible  vapors,  while,  if  the  heat  be 
augmented,  elastic  or  gaseous  products  will  form  ;  but 
this  is  only  true  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  coal 
has  been  treated  in  that  experiment ;  for,  on  the  large 
scale,  in  the  operations  of  nature,  we  do  not  find  such 
results  to  ensue. 

The  fire-damp  which  escapes  into  the  galleries  of  coal 
mines,  leaks  out  from  the  fissures  and  seams  in  the  sur- 
rounding coal,  and  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
coal  at  temperatures  but  little  above  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  under  augmented  pressure  ;  the  temperature, 
however,  is  not  that  at  which  volatile  liquids  or  vapors 
would  be  produced.  The  experiments  of  M.  de  Marsilly  * 
show  that  coals  heated  from  122°  F.  to  626°  F.,  lost  con- 
siderable quantities  of  gas,  which  began  to  escape  at  212° 
F.,  and  went  on  increasing  to  the  limit  of  temperature 
attained.  The  quantity  of  gas  varied  from  1  to  2  litres 
per  kilogramme  of  coal,  and  toward  the  close  of  the 
operation,  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  benzine  came  over. 
The  gas  produced  was  fire-damp,  or  mono-carburetted 
hydrogen.  This  disengagement  takes  place  from  all  coal 

*'  Comptes  Kendus,  May  10,  1 858. 


CHANGE  PRODUCED  BY  PRESSURE.  73 

freshly  mined,  and  is  greatest  in  amount  when  the  coal  is 
finely  powdered.  It  is  not  obstructed  in  escape  by  in- 
creased pressure,  and  after  being  given  off  for  a  time, 
ceases  to  be  continually  produced.  The  formation  and 
removal  of  this  hydro-carbon  gas  appears  to  be  the  first 
step  in  the  decomposition  of  coal,  as  it  appears  to  go  on 
equally  well  on  atmospheric  exposure,  or  by  heating  in  a 
retort  to  500°  F. ;  it  is  more  rapidly  extricated  in  the 
latter  case,  but  not  more  abundant  in  quantity,  abso- 
lutely. 

The  principle  which  renders  coals  fat.  or  renders  them 
more  coherent,  and  gives  that  property  to  the  coke,  is 
perhaps  a  liquid  hydro-carbon  ve"ry  volatile.  By  exposure 
for  some  time  to  the  air,  this  principle  also  escapes  from 
coal  at  common  temperatures  ;  or  if  the  coal  be  submitted 
to  a  temperature  at  572°  F.,  it  also  loses  this  principle, 
and  the  coals  are  no  longer  fat;  the  coke  is  powdery  and 
worthless. 

That  coals  may  be  made  to  give  off  elastic  gases  at 
low  temperatures,  is  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  A. 
A.  Hayes,*  who,  by  well-contrived  operations,  prevented 
the  formation  of  the  vapors  or  liquids  which  usually  are 
produced  ;  from  these  the  experimenter  deduced  a  theory 
of  the  formation  of  anthracite  coal.  Whatever  force  they 
lend  to  such  a  view,  the  results  are  interesting,  as  showing 
how  conditions  vary  results.  In  fact,  when  it  is  recollect- 
ed that  one  of  the  invariable  conditions  under  which  coal 
is  produced,  is  that  of  great  pressure,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  removal  of  this  pressure,  as  by  opening  and  quarrying 
a  coal  seam,  and  exposing  the  broken  mineral  to  the  air, 
must  be  followed  by  actions  of  decomposition  within  the 
mass,  which  are  furthered  and  modified  but  never  origi- 

*  Silliman's  Amer.  Jour,  of  Science,  March,  1859. 


74  FOSSIL    HYDRO-CARBONS. 

nated  by  the  retort,  and  the  furnace  of  the  chemist  and 
manufacturer. 

Time  plays  a  less  important  part  than  pressure  in  the 
production  of  coal,  and  therefore  less  also  in  its  decompo- 
sition. M.  Barouler  *  planned  an  apparatus,  in  which 
vegetable  matters,  surrounded  by  wet  clay,  and  capable 
of  being  strongly  compressed,  could  be  subjected  to  a 
long-sustained  temperature  ranging  from  392°  F.  to  572° 
F.  The  materials  were  thus  placed  in  conditions  similar 
to  that  which  produces  coal,  and  the  apparatus,  while 
partially  air  and  vapor  tight,  allowed  the  watery  vapor  to 
react  on  the  solid  matter  under  a  high  pressure. 

By  placing  in  the  vessel  various  kinds  of  wood,  Barou- 
ler obtained  products  which,  in  properties  and  appearance, 
resembled  ordinary  coal,  having  in  places  a  dull,  and  in 
places  a  brilliant  appearance.  M.  Barouler  found  these 
differences  to  be  owing  either  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
experiment  or  to  the  nature  of  the  wood  selected  for  trial, 
so  that  in  his  view,  this  appeared  to  explain  the  formation 
of  striated  coals,  or  those  formed  of  a  succession  of  alter- 
nately brilliant  and  dull  coals.  He  also  placed  some 
stems  and  leaves  of  plants  between  the  beds  of  clay,  and 
obtained,  at  the  close  of  the  experiment,  only  carbonaceous 
matter,  and  impressions  similar  to  those  found  in  coal 
schists. 

•There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  same  change 
which  is  effected  in  coals  by  the  dry  distillation  of  the 
manufacture,  occurs  also  in  nature.  The  occurrence  of 
Ozokerite,  Hartite,  Middletonite,  Fichtelite,  and  other 
similar  hydro-carbons,  show  that  from  coals  are  formed, 
by  natural  processes,  bodies  isomeric  with  the  paraffine 
(which  itself  has  many  modifications)  of  the  manufacturer. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  Feb.  15,  1858. 


OCCURRENCE   OF   RESINS.  75 

Many  of  these  substances  are  found  in  the  seams  and 
fissures  of  the  coal  stratum,  but  the  change  is  still  better 
shown  in  the  liquid  bitumens  or  petroleums,  of  which  that 
from  Burmah  or  Eangoon  naphtha,  as  it  has  been  termed, 
is  one  of  the  best  examples.     The  raw  material  is  a  semi- 
fluid naphtha,  raised  from  wells  sunk  close  by  the  river 
Iriwaddy,  in  the  Burman  empire.     The  geological  forma-\ 
tions  in  the  neighborhood  are  sandstone  and  blue  clay.) 
In  its  raw  state,  the  natives  use  it  as  a  lamp  fuel.     The! 
burning  fluids  which  are  obtained  from  it  by  processes 
patented  by  W.  de  la  Kue,  are  merely  separated  from  the 
native  compound ;  they  are  not  formed  by  heat  applied, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  heating  of  coal,  but  have  been  formed 
by  natural  processes,  and  when  existing  together  in  vari- 
able   proportions,    constituting    the    petroleum.     When  ] 
steam  at  212°  is  applied  to  distil  this  fluid,  several  vola-  j 
tile  hydro-carbons  come  over,  which  require  to  be  separat- 
ed by  subsequent  distillations.     It  is  remarkable  of  these 
liquids,  that  though  they  come  over  together  below  212°,  j 
yet,  when  separated  from  each  other,  the  boiling  points  j 
of  some  of  them  exceeds  400°  F. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  presence  of  hydro- 
carbon solid  resins  in  organic  substances  occurs  in  those 
which  have  been  subjected  to  telluric  influences  for  the 
shortest  period,  geologically  speaking.  Fichtelite  and 
Scheererite  occur  in  the  latter  tertiary,  or  post  pliocene 
turf  of  Bavaria,  Scheererite,  Kenlite,  Tekoretin,  and 
Phylloretin,  have  been  found  in  the  tertiary  coal  of 
Switzerland  ;  *  it  is  rare  to  find  the  congeneric  solids  in 
the  coal  beds  of  older  date,  so  that  we  must  either  suppose 
that  the  conditions  of  decomposition  of  the  older  formed 
coals  were  not  such  as  could  produce  those  resins — or 

*  T.  E.  Clark,  Inaug.  Diss.,  Heidelberg,  1857. 


76  FORMATION   OP   EESINS. 

what  may  be  more  likely,  that  they  were  also  formed  in 
these,  and  have  been  removed  by  subsequent  actions. 
Their  formation  in  the  pine  wood  of  turf-bogs  shows  that 
a  very  low  temperature  is  necessary  to  produce  them,  and 
that  moisture  and  pressure  are,  perhaps,  more  actively 
exciting  causes. 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON  THE  PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  THE  DISTILLATION  OF 
SCHISTS  AND  NATURAL  BITUMENS. 


WHEN  bituminous  schists  are  submitted  to  destructive 
distillation,  besides  the  production  of  naphtha  occasionally, 
and  inflammable  gas,  there  is  obtained  an  empyreumatic 
oil,  of  a  thick  consistence.  When  this  tarry  oil  is  sub- 
mitted to  fractional  distillation  at  increasing  temperatures, 
a  series  of  volatile  oils  are  separated,  of  which  the  point 
of  ebullition  varies  between  144°  and  540°  F. 

Laurent  gives  the  composition  of  those  given  off  at 
low  temperatures,  as — 

144°— 171°  216°— 218°  304'  Arerage. 

Carbon,  86.0       85.7  86.2  85.60  85.7    i 

Hydrogen,  143       14.1  13.6  1450  143     1    3     a 

Gerhardt  remarks,  that  these  oils  approach  in  constitu- 
tion to  tri-carburetted  hydrogen. 

The  oil  distilled  between  144°  and  156°,  when  recti- 
fied with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  potass,  is  colorless, 
and  has  a  density  of  .714,  and  resembles  naphtha  in  com- 


78  'OIL  or  SCHISTS. 

position  and  properties,  by  exposure  to  sunlight,  and  to 
chlorine  vapors  it  forms  hydrochloric  acid,  and  thickens. 

The  oils  which  are  distilled  between  360°  and  536°  F., 
furnish,  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic 
potass,  a  light,  yellow-brown,  fatty  oil,  called  Ampeline. 
Soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  in  all  proportions  with 
water,  it  resists  congelation  30°  below  zero.  Nitric  acid 
ultimately  converts  it  into  oxalic  acid. — (Gerhardt.) 

M.  St.  Evre,  by  redistilling  the  commercial  oil  dis- 
tilled from  schists,  by  the  fractional  method,  and  purify- 
ing them  by  repeated  distillations  over  potassa  and  anhy- 
drous phosphoric  acid,  obtained  the  following  hydro- 
carbons : — 

C36  H34    boiling  between    520°  and  536° 
C28  H26          "  "  485°  and  500° 

C24  H26          «  «  414°  and  428° 

C18  H16          «  «  268°  and  275° 

The  calcareous  schists  so  abundantly  distributed  over 
many  parts  of  Europe,  are  well  characterized  by  the  diffu- 
sion of  bitumen  through  the  mass  of  the  limestone  rock. 

At  Igernay,  near  Autun  ;  at  G-emenval,  in  Alsace  ; 
at  Menat,  in  Auvergne  ;  and  in  England,  in  Derbyshire, 
beds  of  some  extent  and  thickness  have  been  met  with. 
They  have  not,  however,  until  lately,  been  utilized,  ex- 
cepting the  schists  of  Menat,  which  have  been  burned  to 
convert  into  charcoal  for  decolorizing  and  disinfecting  pur- 
poses. The  crude  distillation  of  these  latter  schists  fur- 
nished— 

.    Oil,  20] 


Combustible  gases, 


53  per  cent,  of 


combustible  matters. 
Charcoal  and  ash,       19 

Water,  8 

100 


ANALYSIS   OF    BITUMEN.  79 

oil  is  brown,  very  fluid,  and  of  a  disagreeable 
odor  :  in  a  lamp  with  a  circular  wick  it  burns  well,  and 
without  smoke,  when  the  diameter  and  height  of  the  chim- 
ney is  greater  than  usual ;  the  flame  is  brilliant  white. 

On  distilling  this  oil,  and  changing  the  receiver  when 
|  have  gone  over,  an  oil  comes  over,  having  little  color, 
and  depositing  crystalline  plates,  whitish  and  glittering, 
when  cooled  to  32°,  or  22°.  To  separate  the  crystals,  the 
liquid  must  be  cooled  down  to  10°  C.,  the  whole  thrown 
on  a  fine  linen  rag,  and  subsequent  pressure  of  the  crystal- 
line mass  between  folds  of  filtering  paper.  The  crystals 
are  further  purified  by  boiling  alcohol,  whence  they  are 
precipitated  as  it  cools.  When  pure,  it  fuses  at  33°  C., 
very  soluble  in  ether,  inattackable  by  nitric  acid,  hydro- 
chloric and  sulphuric  acids,  or  by  chlorine  and  potassa. 
Its  composition  is  expressed  by  the  following  percentage  : 

Carbon      =  85.96-1 
Hydrogen  =  14.036 

— it  is  therefore  paraffine. 

The  bitumen  of  Seysell,  which  is  a  calcareous  rock, 
yielded,  on  distillation,  according  to  Dumas  : — 

Volatile  oil,    ....  8.6 

Charcoal,     ....  2.0 

Quartz  sand,  ....  69.0 

Calcareous  grains,        .        .  20.4 

100.0 

The  bitumen  of  Bechelbronn  is  viscid,  of  a  deep  brown 
color,  and  is  used  as  a  lubricating  or  greasing  oil. 

The  bitumen  of  Monastier  (Haut  Loire),  does  not 
soften  by  boiling  water,  and  burns  without  softening  or 
agglutinating  ;  on  distillation,  it  affords  : — 


80  BITUMINOUS   SCHISTS. 

Volatile  oil,   .... 
Charcoal,   .... 
Water,          .... 
Gas  and  vapors, 
Quartz  and^Mica, 
Ferruginous  clay, 


The  bituminous  schists  do  not  differ  in  the  products 
of  distillation  from  pure  "bitumens  :  the  ashy  coke,  left 
as  residue,  is  always  more  abundant  and  earthy  than  in 
natural  bitumens.  They  have  been  a  long  time  employed 
in  France,  to  produce  charcoal  for  decolorizing  purposes, 
due  to  the  fine  condition  in  which  the  charcoal  is  left  after 
ignition.  The  schists  of  Menat  have  been  long  applied 
to  this  purpose  by  M.  Bergenhioux.  M.  Selligue  first 
introduced  the  manufacture  of  volatile  oil  from  bitumin- 
ous schists  into  France  ;  and  operated  also  with  the 
splint  coal  of  Autun.  He  obtained  these  products  from 
the  schists — 

1.  Light  or  ethereal  oil. 

2.  Fixed  oil. 

3.  Paraffinised  oil,  used  for  lubricating. 

4.  True  paraffine. 

5.  Coloring  material,  and  ammonia. 

6.  A  dry  residue,  which  may  be  used  for  discolor- 
ing syrups,  or  disinfecting  purposes. 

The  schists  of  Youvaut,  in  the  Vendee,  afforded,  on 

analysis  : — 

Ashes, 61.6 

Charcoal,  .....  7.7 

Matters  volatile  at  a  red  heat,  3.2 

Oil, 14.5 

Water,       ....  3.2 

Gas,      .....  9.8 

100.0 


PRODUCTS   FROM   SCHISTS.  81 

In  the  distillation,  water  is  first  given  off,  then  oils, 
almost  colorless,  and  very  light  at  commencement,  deepen- 
ing in  color,  and  becoming  heavy  toward  the  close  ;  den- 
sity of  oil,  .870 :  yields  paraffine  on  cooling. 

By  fractional  distillation  of  this  oil,  it  yields  products 
boiling  at  different  temperatures.  Dumas  states  that  a 
number  of  indefinite  compounds  are  thus  obtained,  and 
in  which  no  one  compound  appears  to  exceed  much  the 
proportion  in  which  the  others  exist.  The  only  practical 
distinction  which  can  be  made  in  these  products,  is  the 
division  of  them  into  two  classes,  viz.  : —  , 

1st.  Those  boiling  between  105°  and  140° — volatile  \ 
oils. 

2d.  Those  whose  boiling  point  exceeds  428° — fixed  ' 
oils. 

In  the  distillation  of  the  schists,  M.  Selligue's  chief 
object  was  to  obtain  as  much  fluid  oil  as  possible,  which! 
he  applied,  before  1845,  to  lighting  purposes,  as  a  suhsti-- 
tute  for  the  burning  fluids  then  in  use,  and  also  as  a 
substitute  for  oil,  in  the  production  of  illuminating  gas. 

M.    Selligue   conducts  the  distillation  in1  cylindrical  1 
cast  iron  retorts,  placed  vertically  ;  each  furnace  heats   ' 
six  such  cylinders,  each  of  which  has  the  capacity  of  a 
cubic  metre,  and  is  so  constructed,  that  the  schists  may 
be  introduced  by  wagons  at  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder, 
and  the  residue  drawn  off  by  an  iron  car  run  under  the 
lower  end.     The  retorts  are  so  arranged  as  to  economize 
fuel ;  the  products  of  distillation  are  removed  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  retorts,  and  are  condensed  in  cooled/! 
pipes.     When  the  distillation  is  one  fourth  over,  the  com-, 
bustible  gases  produced  are  turned  under  the  fire-grateJ 
and  produce  an  economy  of  fuel.     The  gas  is  consider-* 
able,  each  cylinder  producing  7.500  gallons  of  gas.    Each 


82  BITUMINOUS   SHALE. 

cubic  metre  of  schist  weighs  from  1,260  to  1,400  Ibs., 
and  yields  90  Ibs.  of  bituminous  oil. 

From  1  ton  of  schist,  Selligue  obtained,  in  his  manu- 
factory, the  following  products  : — 

1st.  820  Ibs.  of  light  oil,  specific  gravity  0.760  to  .810. 
2d.   582  Ibs.  of  mineral  oil,  adapted  to  lighting  purposes. 
3d.   318  Ibs.  of  paraffinized  oil,  having  14  per  cent,  paraflme. 
4th.  400  Ibs.  of  tar,  or  residual  pitch. 

The  liquid  first  obtained  is  generally  naphtha,  or  ben- 
zule,  but  not  constantly  nor  necessarily  so.  In  this  the 
difference  in  distillation  of  schists  which  are  bituminous 
from  true  coal  or  coal  shale  :  the  latter  always  yielding 
benzule  by  distillation  ;  the  latter,  generally. 

Naphtha,  if  present,  will  come  over  at  temperatures 
below  212°  ;  on  heating  bitumens  to  this  point,  rarely  any 
fluid  comes  over,  as  it  is  only  a  few  bitumens  which  con- 
tain it  ready  formed.  On  distillation,  they  yield  petroline 
when  the  temperature  rises  to  450°  ;  and  at  a  teinpera- 
•  ture  of  482°,  the  whole  petroline  distils  over. 

Prof.  A.  W.  Hoffman  examined  the  bituminous  shale 
of  Kimmeridge,  Dorsetshire,  England,  to  determine  the 
yield  of  coke  and  oily  matters,  with  the  following  result  : 


Specimen  1  : — 
Coke,  71.5 

Oily  Matters,  14.6 

Gas,  water,  and  ammonia,  13.9 
100.0 


2.7  light  oil  (naphtha). 

9.5  heavy  oil,  containing  1.3  per  cent. 

paraffine. 
2.4  pitch. 


Specimen  2  :  — 
Coke,  43.00 


^£!t*-t<^  ^ 

BITUMINOUS   SHALE.    //-ppC  ,  ®*         83 

C?A 


Oily  Matters. 


89.00 


37.7  heavy  oil,  1.9  per  cent,  paraffine. 


Gas,  water,  ammonia,  &c.,     18.00 
100. 


H.  Yohl  examined  the  posidonian  slate  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  relation  to  its  capability  of  yielding  oils. 

3;000  Ibs.  of  this  slate  gave,  on  dry  distillation  : — 


Tar, 

Ammoniacal  liquor, 

Residues, 

Gas, 


289.032 

in  100  parts. 
9.63 

249.948 

8.33 

2090.505 

69.68 

370.515 

12.36 

3000.000 


100.00 


100  parts  of  tar  (sp.  gr. =0.975),  yield  :— 


Photogen, 

24.180  h 

Lubricating  oil,     . 

.    41.936 

Paraffine,  .        .        . 

0.124 

Carbon  residue,     . 

.    13.689 

Creosote,   . 

19.036  j 

Gas,  and  Loss, 

.      1.035 

100.000 


Theod.  Engelbach  gives  the  following  percentage,  re- 
sults of  the  distillation  of  a  bituminous  sand  from  Heide, 
in  Holland  : — 


Carbonaceous  residue, 
Distillate  (oils),    . 
Gas,  and  Loss, 


84.5 
14. 
1.5 

100.- 


The  bituminous  schists  of  the  United  States  have 


84  BITUMINOUS   SHALE. 

not  been  examined  practically  with  regard  to  their  pro- 
ductiveness in  photogenic  liquids.  The  coal  schists  of 
the  province  of  New  Brunswick  have  been  treated  by  the 
process  patented  by  A.  Gesner,  in  1854,  by  which,  not 
more  than  from  40  to  50  gallons  of  crude  oil  per  ton  were 
obtained.  Shortly  after  the  operation  was  commenced  on 
the  large  scale,  the  Albert  coal,  or  bitumen,  was  substi- 
tuted, which,  being  more  easily  distilled,  led  to  the  aband- 
onment of  the  schists.  The  large  amount  of  bituminous 
coal  in  the  United  States  will  for  a  long  time  prevent  any 
attempt  being  made  to  distil  bituminous  schists. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

OP  THE  PRODUCTS  OP  DISTILLATION  OF  PEAT  AND  WOOD. 

WHEN  peat  or  turf  is  distilled,  the  chief  products  are 
— 1st.  Pyroligneous  acid  ;  2d.  A  brown,  empyreumatic, 
crystallizable  oil  :  and  3d.  Ammonia,  and  carburetted 
hydrogen  gases.  These  products  are  all  useful  in  the 
arts,  and  are  separated  in  those  countries  where  peat 
abounds.  A  manufactory  was  erected  a  few  years  since, 
at  Athy,  in  Ireland,  for  the  distillation  of  peat ;  it  was 
worked  on  the  plan  in  Mr.  Kees  Keece's  patent,  sealed  in 
England  in  1849.  The  principle  of  this  mode  of  distilla- 
tion is,  to  drive  a  current  of  heated  air,  and  products  of 
combustion,  from  below,  upwards,  through  the  materials 
in  the  heated  furnace.  The  heat  developed  by  the  prod- 
ucts of  combustion  passing  upward,  carries  off  the  oils 
generated.  The  waste,  inflammable  products  are  used  for 
fuel. 

The  average  results  of  the  distillation  gave  : — 


Watery  matters,  30.C14 

Tar,  2.392 

Gases,  62.392 

Ashes,  4.197 


In  100  parts. 


86  DISTILLATION   OF   PEAT. 

The  watery  products  and  the  tar  yielding  : — 

Ammonia, 0.287 

Acetic  acid,         ....  0.207 

Naphtha, 0.140 

Volatile  and  fixed  oils,        .        .  1.059 

Paraffine, 0.125 

The  furnace  in  which  the  distillation  is  carried  on, 
somewhat  resembles  the  high-blast  iron  furnaces ;  con- 
densers, with  scrubbers  and  main,  are  attached. 

At  Denis  &  Hoeschs,  at  Ludwigshafen,  lignite  and 
turf  are  the  crude  materials.  The  bulk  of  the  latter  is 
reduced  by  pressure,  and  subjected  to  distillation,  furnish- 
ing a  product  similar  to  coal-tar.  The  turf-tar  may  be 
used  for  purposes  similar  to  those  in  which  birch-tree-tai 
is  used.  Turf-coke,  as  made  there,  forms  a  good  fuel,  and 
the  ash  serves  for  manure. 

Turf  from  Hanover,  air-dried,  gave,  in  100  parts  : — 

Tar, 9.06 

Ammoniacal  liquor,    .         .        .  40.00 

Coke, 35.32 

Gas,  and  Loss,    ....  15.62 

100  parts  of  tar  yielded,  on  average  : — 

Light  oil  (photogen),  19.457— sp.  gr.— 0.830 

Heavy  oil  (lubricating  oil),  19.547— sp.  gr.  =0.870 

Asphalt,  17.194 

Paraffine,  3.316 

Creosote,  and  Loss,  40.486 

Consequently,  100  parts  of  the  air-dried  turf  yields  : — 

Light  oil,  .       '..        .        .      1.7633 
Heavy  oil,        .        .        .          1.7715 

Asphalt,  ....      1.5582 
Paraffine,  0.3005 


TURF   OILS.  87 

«                        Coke,  .        .        .        .        .  35.3120 

Water,     ....  40.0000 

Gas, 15.6250 

Creosote,  and  Loss,         .  3.6695 

The  turf  Photogen,  or  light  oil,  is  a  transparent,  light 
colored,  thin  liquid,  with  hut  a  faint  odor  ;  it  is  wholly 
volatile,  and  does  not  hecome  hrown  hy  exposure  to  air  ; 
specific  gravity =0.835.  It  is  a  powerful  solvent  of  fat, 
resin,  and  caoutchouc,  and  after  evaporation,  leaves  them 
behind  unaltered  ;  it  m  contains  no  oxygen,  and  has  the 
formula  of  CH.  Burned  in  camphene  lamps,  it  gives  no 
odor,  and  when  pure,  does  not  char  the  wick,  so  that  the 
latter  does  not  require  trimming  oftener  than  once  in 
three  days. 

The  nitric  acid  compounds  of  turf-oil  have  an  odor  of 
Musk,  and  Bitter  Almond  oil,  and  are  used  in  perfumery 
and  cosmetics.  Similar  compounds  are  formed  with  oil 
from  paper  coal  and  lignite,  as  well  as  other  hydro-car- 
bons ;  they  all  probably  contain  nitro-benzule. 

The  oil  used  alone,  or  mixed  with  alcohol,  forms  an 
excellent  liquid  for  removing  stains  and  grease-spots. 

Heavy  Oil,  or  Grease  Oil.  This  oil  is  of  a  clear 
brown,  beer  color,  has  an  insignificant  odor,  and  is  not  so 
fluid  as  the  turf  photogen.  Although  every  good  coal-oil 
lamp  burns  this  oil  with  a  dazzling  white  light,  yet  the 
wick  must  be  cleaned  after  the  lamp  has  burned  from 
6  to  8  hours.  It  has  a  greater  photometric  value  than 
the  photogen,  due  to  the  larger  amount  of  carbon  which 
it  contains. 

The  statement  that  the  light  mineral  oils  are  the 
better  materials  for  lamps,  or  have  a  higher  photogenic 
value,  is  not  true. 

Mixed  with  suitable  materials,  it  forms  a  very  good 


88  PRODUCE   FROM   TURF. 

lubricating  oil,  which  neither  becomes  resinous,  nor  hardens 
by  the  cold  of  winter,  and  is  employed  for  greasing  the 
spindles  in  cotton  factories,  in  lieu  of  train  or  rape  oil. 

Its-  specific  gravity  does  not  exceed  .870,  and,  like 
photogen,  contains  no  oxygen. 

Asphalt.  .The  pitch  obtained  after  the  distillation 
has  a  very  black  color,  and  is  used  for  varnishes  to  coat 
iron-work,  and  as  an  ingredient  for  making  lamp-black. 

The  Paraffine  produced  is  very  pure,  and  so  large  in 
amount,  that  it  exceeds  that  produced  from  any  coal,  and 
as  a  paraffine-producing  material,  turf  has  no  rival. 

The  Creosote  contained  in  the  heavy  oil  is  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  and  contains  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  pure 
creosote  ;  the  adulterating  ingredients  are  carbolic  acid, 
butyric  and  propionic  acid,  and  picamar. 

When  peat  is  distilled  at  an  incipient  red  heat,  and 
gradually  augmenting  the  temperature  as  the  operation 
proceeds,  the  tar  will  contain,  besides  the  volatile  and 
fixed  oil,  a  considerable  quantity  of  paraffine  ;  if  the  heat 
passes  beyond  a  certain  range,  the  character  of  the  tar 
will  change,  and  it  will  afterward  yield  very  little  paraf- 
fine. 

The  works  established  by  the  Irish  Peat  Co.,  in  the 
county  of  Kildare,  before  alluded  to,  are  capable  of  work- 
ing up  100  tons  of  peat  per  diem.  Every  ton  of  peat 
yields  3  Ibs.  of  paraffine,  2  gallons  of  volatile  oil,  adapted 
for  burning,  and  1  gallon  of  fixed  oil  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses. These  are  all  derived  from  the  tar.  The  quantity 
of  tar  produced  by  careful  distillation  varies  from  5  to  6 
gallons  per  ton,  yielding  the  above  products. 

One  ton.  of  peat  yields  65  gallons  of  the  watery  liquor, 
or  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  30  per  cent.  A  numerous 
list  of  substances  have  been  made  out  as  the  products  ;  for 


WOOD-TAR.  89 

all  practical  purposes,  ammonia,  acetic  acid,  and  pyroxilic 
spirit,  need  only  be  mentioned. 

The  fluid  from  1  ton  of  peat  affords  5J  Ibs.  of  am- 
monia, producing,  when  combined  with  sulphuric  acid, 
24  Ibs.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  The  quantity  of  acetic 
acid  from  1  ton  of  peat,  is  5  Ibs.  The  naphtha  mingled 
with  the  water  amounts  to  8  Ibs.  per  ton  of  peat.  The 
charcoal  or  coke  left  in  the  retort  is  equal  to  25  per  cent. 
of  the  weight  of  the  peat. 

When  wood  is  submitted  to  distillation  in  close  ves- 
sels, the  substances  which  are  produced  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  differ  according  to  the  nature  of  the  wood,  and 
the  resinous  matters  which  may  be  formed  by  the  tree, 
and  contained  in  its  substance.  The  temperature  at 
which  it  is  distilled,  also  determines  the  constitution  of 
many  of  the  products  ;  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  other  organic  matters,  are  solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous.  The  gaseous  products  have  been  already  noticed  ; 
the  liquid  products  are  in  part  soluble,  and  partly  insolu- 
ble in  water  ;  the  latter  forms  the  tar.  The  liquid  mat- 
ters soluble  in  water  are,  pyroligneous  (acetic)  acid,  wood 
spirit  (hydrate  of  methyle),  acetone,  and  creosote.  Those 
not  soluble  are  the  hydro-carbons,  toluene,  xylite,  cumene, 
and  some  oxygenated  oils.  The  important  solid  substance 
is  paraffine. 

These  distillates  are  always  accompanied  with  colored, 
pasty  substances,  which  form  the  chief  bulk  of  the  tar, 
and  which  yields  ammonia  during  the  distillation,  and 
which,  at  the  close  of  distillation,  becomes  a  resinous-like 
substance,  which  combines  readily  with  alkalies. 

"When  wood-tar  is  redistilled,  there  passes  over  with 
the  watery  matters  at  the  commencement,  a  light-yellow 
oil,  which  swims  on  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  and  subse- 


90  WOOD-TAB   OILS 

quently,  there  comes  over  a  tjiick  colored  oil,  which  is 
heavier  than  water. 

Liglit  Oil.  This  is  a  complex  mixture,  which,  when 
rectified,  begins  to  boil  at  158°,  but  which  soon  rises  by 
degrees  to  482°.  The  density  of  these  different  portions 
varies  between  .841  and  .877. 

To  this  light  oil,  Keichenbach  gave  the  name  of  Eu- 
pion,  under  the  impression  that  it  was  a  distinct  and 
unique  substance  ;  but  Yoelckel  has  shown  that  the  mere 
volatile  portions,  those  rising  below  212°,  are  chiefly 
acetate  of  methyle,  with  acetone,  and  a  little  benzine, 
xylite,  and  mesite. 

Keichenbach  states  that  pure  eupion  may  be  obtained 
by  distilling  oil  of  Colza,  having  a  boiling  point  of  118°, 
which  rises  as  high  as  336°,  in  some  samples  of  eupion, 
dependent  on  the  mode  of  extraction  and  the  temperature. 
A  substance  with  such  qualities  must,  as  Gerhard  t  asserts, 
be  a  complex  mixture  of  liquids  ;  and  it  may  be  asserted 
that  eupion,  as  a  distinct  chemical  compound,  does  not 
exist. 

The  portions  distilling  over  between  212°  and  302°, 
are  chiefly  oxide  of  methyle,  as  well  as  the  isomeric 
bodies,  benzine,  toluene,  and  xylite  ;  with  these  are  mixed 
some  oxygenated  hydro-carbons,  from  which  they  may  be 
separated,  by  washing  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
which  breaks  up  the  latter. 

The  less  volatile  portions,  boiling  between  302°  and 
392°,  are  composed  of  a  mixture  of  hydro-carbons  (among 
which  is  cumene)  and  oxygenated  oils,  separable  as  above 
described  ;  capnomore  is  found  among  the  latter  oils. 

Heavy  Oils.  This  oil,  gathered  at  the  2d  period  of 
distillation  of  wood  tar,  is  a  mixture  of  some  of  the  fore- 
going substances,  and  some  other  oils  heavier  than  water ; 


WOOD-TAB   OILS.  91 

these  are  attacked  by  alkalies,  and  dissolve  in  such  solu- 
tions ;  they  are,  creosote,  capnomore,  and  pyroxanthogene ; 
the  latter,  by  the  action  of  caustic  potass,  forms  pyrox- 
anthin,  discovered  by  Scanlan,  and  examined  by  Gregory  ; 
it  crystallizes  in  long  yellow  needles,  and  converted  by 
sulphuric  acid  into  a  deep  yellow-red  color. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  Keichenbach  has  described  the 
following  substances  as  derived  from  wood-tar  : — 

Pittacal  is  a  substance  produced  by  the  action  of 
baryta  upon  the  oil  of  tar  ;  it  dissolves  in  acids,  and  is 
precipitated  by  alkalies  ;  it  does  not  dissolve  in  water, 
alcohol,  or  ether ;  it  combines  readily  with  alumina,  and 
by  its  means  can  be  readily  precipitated  upon  the  tissues 
as  a  dye-stuff. 

Picamar  is  an  oil  of  specific  gravity  1.10,  greasy  to 
the  touch,  of  a  feeble  odor,  and  biting  and  bitter  to  the 
taste  ;  it  boils  about  518°,  and  combines  with  alkalies  as 
creosote  does,  forming,  with  them,  crystalline  compounds. 

Creosote  has  already  been  described  under  the  products 
of  distillation  of  coal. 

The  other  compounds  do  not  deserve  detailed  notice 
in  this  work. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

METHODS  OF  APPLYING  HEAT. 

*  THERE  is,  perhaps,  no  question  of  so  much  moment 
to  the  manufacturer  of  photogenic  oils,  as  that  which 
presents  itself  to  him  when  ahout  to  commence  the  manu- 
facture— What  is  the  best  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
retorts  or  vessels  for  distilling  the  coal  or  bituminous 
mineral  ?  All  other  questions  are  secondary  to  this. 
The  mode  of  purification  of  the  oil,  nay,  even  the  selection 
of  the  variety  of  coal  to  be  operated  upon,  are  of  less  im- 
portance than  the  problem  how  to  obtain,  from  a  given 
weight  of  bituminous  mineral,  all  of  the  volatile  and  heavy 
oils  which  it  is  susceptible  of  yielding  under  the  most 
suitable  application  of  heat. 

In  the  infancy  of  the  dry  distillation  of  coal,  where 
the  object  was  not  the  manufacture  of  oils,  but  either  that 
of  coke  or  of  gas,  it  was  deemed  desirable  to  apply  a 
strong  heat  up  to  redness,  and  obtain  thereby  as  much 
tar  as  possible;  from  this  tar  the  oils  were  afterwards 
separated  by  fractional  distillation  ;  but  as  it  has  been 
already  shown  that  the  nature  of  tar  differs  not  only  with 
the  nature  of  the  substance  distilled,  but  also  with  that 


TEMPERATURE   NECESSARY.  93 

of  the  heat  applied  during  distillation,  the  question  natu- 
rally presents  itself,  what  are  the  requisite  characters 
which  a  tar  should  possess,  to  extract  oil  therefrom  ?  or, 
is  it  either  possible  or  profitable  to  obtain  oils  by  distilla- 
tion in  the  direct  way,  without  devoting  attention  to  the 
production  of  tar  as  an  indispensable  necessity  ?  It  is  now 
well  known,  that  tars  formed  at  a  high  temperature,  such 
as  that  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gas,  yield  a  considerable 
amount  of  naphtha,  or  benzule,  and  contain,  also,  much 
naphthalin — the  proportion  of  naphthalin  being  in  pro- 
portion to  the  augmented  temperature,  and  the  sudden- 
ness of  its  application  ;  but  neither  of  these  products  are 
desirable  in  this  manufacture.  The  substances  which  are 
evolved  after  the  naphtha  has  ceased  to  be  found,  and 
before  the  naphthalin  is  produced,  being  those  desirable 
to  be  obtained,  the  point  to  be  gained  is,  the  largest  pro- 
duction of  them,  and  the  consequent  diminished  production 
of  the  others. 

As  naphthalin  is  produced  at  high  temperatures,  at 
which  paraffine  does  not  form,  and  as  the  production  of 
the  valuable  oils  is  accompanied  with  the  slow  production 
of  the  latter  solid  ;  and  as  the  production  and  distillation 
of  paraffine  goes  on  abundantly  at  a  temperature  when  the 
lighter  oils  have  ceased,  we  have,  in  this  statement  of  the 
circumstances  pointed  out,  the  conditions  of  temperature 
which  are  necessary  to  be  observed  in  distillation.  The 
temperature  must  be  above  that  point  at  which  naphtha 
or  benzule  is  produced  ;  it  must  be  below  that  at  which 
naphthalin  is  formed  ;  within  this  range,  paraffine  is  pro- 
duced, and  the  desirable  temperature,  therefore,  is  that 
between  the  formation  of  naphtha  and  the  abundant  for- 
mation of  paraffine. 

Paraffine  is  not  produced  in  tars  of  gas  works,  where 


94  SCALE    OF    TEMPERATURE. 

a  high  cherry-red  heat  has  been  used  ;  it  is  naphthalin 
which  is  the  waxy  solid  formed.  At  low-red  heats,  it 
"begins  to  be  produced  ;  while  paraffine  is  evolved  at  tem- 
peratures beginning  at  350°,  and  running  up  to  a  very 
low-red  heat  not  visible  in  the  day-time  ;  this,  then,  is 
the  range  of  temperature  within  which  the  manufacture 
must  be  conducted.  Pouillet  has  given  the  following 
table  of  temperatures,  which  will  serve  as  an  index  to  the 
proper  understanding  of  this  subject  : — 

/       Incipient  redness,         .        .        .        525° 

Dull  redness, 700° 

Cherry-red,  commencing,     .        .        800° 

brighter,      .  '     .        '.    900° 

«          full,          .        .        .      1000° 

Dark  yellow-red,     ....  1100° 

Bright  ignition,   ....       1200° 

White  heat, 1300° 

Strong  white  heat,       .        .        .      1400° 
Dazzling  white  heat,       .        .        .  1600° 

The  range  desirable  for  manufacturing  gas  lies  between 
800°  and  1000°.  That  for  the  manufacture  of  oils,  ter- 
minates where  that  of  gas  manufacture  begins  ;  and 
perhaps  the  most  efficient  temperature  is  that  which  does 
not  exceed  700 c. 

To  accomplish  the  forementioned  object,  various  shapes 
of  retorts  have  been  adopted,  where  it  was  deemed  desir- 
able to  vary  the  form  in  present  use  for  the  manufacture 
of  gas.  In  the  majority  of  instances,  manufacturers  satis- 
fied themselves  with  the  cast  iron  gas  retorts,  and  accom- 
panying pipes  and  condensers,  and,  in  some  cases,  did  not 
even  lessen  the  heat  to  any  considerable  extent  ;  it  was 
soon  found,  however,  that  the  gas  thus  produced,  was  at 
the  cost  of  the  oils,  and  that,  with  such  retorts,  the  fire 


FORM  OF   RETORT.  95 

must  be  considerably  moderated ;  and  hence,  that  the 
direct  flame  should  not  be  allowed  to  play  on  the  walls 
of  the  retort :  this  was  accomplished  either  by  placing  a 
sole  or  floor,  perforated,  between  the  fire  and  the  retort, 
or  by  conducting  the  flame  through  flues  running  along- 
side the  sides  and  top  of  the  retort. 

The  ^  shaped  retort,  in  such  cases,  was  used,  on  ac- 
count of  the  facility  of  charging  and  cleansing  ;  and  where 
horizontal  retorts  are  used,  the  many  advantages  this  pos- 
sesses over  the  circular,  or  even  elliptical  ones,  may  still 
give  it  the  preference. 

The  manufacturer  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  object 
he  has  in  view  is  not  the  rapid  carbonization  of  the  mass, 
but  the  slow  and  gradual  one  ;  and  hence,  those  forms 
of  vessels  which  allow  only  of  slow  heating  of  the  mass, 
are  th'ose  to  be  preferred. 

In  many  cases,  the  coal  or  bitumen  contains  consider- 
able sulphur,  or  pyrites,  which,  in  a  short  time,  so  cor- 
rodes the  inside  of  iron  retorts,  as  to  render  their  renewal 
a  serious  item  of  expenditure. 

Mr.  Clegg  has  shown  that  clay  retorts  have  many 
advantages  over  iron  ones ;  in  practice,  they  have,  in 
Scotland,  wholly  superseded  iron  retorts  :  and  are  worthy 
of  trial  in  this  country,  in  those  localities  near  coal 
deposits,  where  fire-clay  is  attainable. 

Whatever  be  the  material  of  which  the'  retort  is  con- 
structed, two   conditions  are  necessary  for  success  :  the 
first  is,  that  the  eduction  pipe  for  carrying  off  the  vapors 
should  be  attached  to  the  end  least  heated,  and  not,  as  in 
gas  retorts,  from  the  front ;  the  second  is,  that  such  pipes  l 
should  be  of  sufficient  calibre  to  allow  the  free  discharge  , 
of  the  vapors  formed,  and  thus  no  great  pressure  be  exerted  i 
within  the  retort,  as  such  prevents  the  further  formation 


96  CLAY   RETORTS. 

of  vapors  ;    in   practice,  a   pipe   less   than  four  inches 
diameter  will  not  deliver  vapors  readily. 

With  regard  to  clay  retorts,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
retorts  made  of  Stourbridge  clay,  or  common  fire-clay, 
have  been  much  employed  in  England  and  France  for  the 
manufacture  of  gas,  and  are  viewed  as  being  more  eco- 
nomical than  iron  ;  when  made  of  several  pieces,  they  leak 
at  the  outset  of  employment,  but  after  a  couple  of  weeks' 
work,  they  become  perfectly  gas-tight  :  they  are  equally 
well-adapted  for  the  production  of  oils,  subject  to  certain 
conditions  of  manufacture.  The  deposit  of  carbon  is 
always  greater  in  earthen  gas  retorts  than  in  iron  ones, 
as  they  are  more  apt  to  heat  up  unequally,  and  burn  por- 
tions of  the  coal  inside  ;  this  should  be  carefully  avoided 
in  the  oil  distillation,  as  the  loss  of  oil  is  thereby  very 
great.  As  the  material  of  these  retorts  is  a  non-conductor 
of  heat,  and  apt  to  be  warmed  irregularly,  the  cylindrical- 
shaped  retort  will  be  found  best  adapted  for  distilling 
purposes  ;  the  average  lengths  are,  8  feet  long,  14  inches 
diameter,  and  4  inches  thick  ;  the  mouth-pieces  may  be 
cast  iron,  fitted  with  bolt  and  flanch,  and  jointed  with 
fire-clay  and  iron  cement  :  from  three  to  five  such  retorts 
may  be  placed  over  one  fire,  and  the  heat  should  be  slowly 
and  gradually  increased,  and  after  the  operation  is  finished, 
they  should  be  cooled  equally  and  slowly :  if  made  of 
several  pieces,  the  joints  may  be  2J  to  3  feet  long.  The 
cement  is  made  of  20  Ibs.  of  gypsum,  made  into  a  pulp 
with  water,  add  10  Ibs.  of  iron  turnings,  saturated  with  a 
strong  solution  of  sal  ammoniac;  mixed  to  a  consistence  fit 
for  use.  When  properly  made,  they  are  not  liable  to  frac- 
ture from  weight  of  charge,  and  for  economy  and  dura- 
bility, are  preferable  to  iron,  especially  when  the  coal  used 
is  sulphury. 


BRICK   OVENS.  97 

Another  mode  of  applying  heat,  so  as  to  produce  slow 
distillation,  is  by  the  use  of  Brick  Ovens.  These  may  be 
made  wholly  of  fire-brick,  or  with  the  bottom  and  side  of 
fire-tiles,  and  the  crown  of  brick  :  some  river-sand  and 
pipe-clay,  added  to  the  fire-clay  of  the  coal-bed,  prevents 
the  brick  from  cracking. 

Mr.  Clegg  gives  the  dimensions  of  an  oven  as  3  feet  2 
inches  wide,  8  inches  to  the  springing  line  of  the  arch,  and 
thence  to  crown,  6  inches.  The  usual  charge  for  such  a 
retort  or  oven  is  5  cwt.,  and  the  fuel  required  for  manu- 
facturing gas  is  estimated  at  50  per  cent,  the  amount  dis- 
tilled :  as  much  less  heat  is  required  for  producing  oil, 
35  per  cent,  would  be  the  probable  calculation. 

These  brick  retorts  are  not  found  as  economical  as 
iron  for  the  manufacture  of  gas,  on  account  of  the  waste 
of  fuel ;  but  this  would  not  operate  as  an  objection  in  the 
oil  manufacture  ;  and  in  many  localities  of  the  Ohio  and 
Illinois,  and  Missouri  coal-field,  where  fire-clay  is  abundant, 
and  cast  iron  expensive,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  brick 
oven  is  the  appropriate  distilling  vessel. 

Muspratt,  in  his  valuable  work  on  applied  chemistry, 
under  the  article  Fuel,  figures  several  carbonizing  ovens, 
made  of  fire-brick,  resembling  muffle  furnaces,  in  which 
the  materials  are  placed  in  sheet-iron  cases,  or  trays,  and 
laid  on  shelves,  or  other  support,  so  that  the  heat  may 
play  around  them.  The  muffle  has  its  wall,  about  4^ 
inches  thick,  heated  by  a  fire,  the  flame  from  which  cir- 
cumscribes the  whole  muffle.  The  products  of  combustion 
pass  behind  the  muffles  by  a  special  channel,  and  return 
to  the  front  by  the  flue  which  leads  to  the  chimney  ;  the 
trays  may  be  run  in  on  trucks,  to  facilitate  introduction 
and  removal,  by  a  door  in  the  front,  lined  with  fire-brick, 
and  luted  with  fire-clay. 


98 


CRANE    FURNACE. 


The  use  of  chimney  and  blast-furnaces  may  be  con- 
sidered an  improvement  upon  the  last-mentioned  method 
of  applying  heat. 

The  process  of  carbonizing  mineral-fuel  for  the  pro- 
duction of  charcoal,  involves  the  use  of  apparatus  which 
are  better  adapted  for  obtaining  the  mineral  oils  abun- 
dantly, than  that  used  in  gas  works.  When  the  Irish 
Peat  Company  first  erected  works  to  obtain  not  only  the 
charcoal,  but  also  the  volatile  oils  and  paraffine  therefrom, 
a  furnace  resembling  somewhat  a  blast-furnace  was  used  ; 
closed  at  the  top  by  a  valve-lid,  and  having  an  eduction 
pipe  at  the  upper  part  of  the  chimney :  these  were  not 
found  economical,  and  the  furnace  patented  by  Mr.  P.  M. 
Crane  was  adopted.  The  improvement  in  this  furnace 
consisted  in  the  use  of  another  furnace  to  that  in  which 
the  combustion  of  the  peat  was  effected.  In  this  ad- 
ditional furnace,  the  peat  is  consumed  by  a  blast  of  air  in 
the  ordinary  way,  and  the  torrified  gases  are  conducted 
by  a  flue  to  the  second  one, 
which  is  likewise  filled  with  peat, 
and  the  heat  thus  communicated 
chars  the  material.  Both  fur- 
naces may  be  closed  down  by 
weighted  valve-lids  at  top,  a,  so 
as  to  prevent  any  loss  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  distillation.  The  furnace 
A  B  is  lighted,  and  the  blast  of 
air  thrown  upon  the  ignited  fuel 
through  3  tuyeres,  c  c  c,  at  the 
bottom :  the  heated  gases  are 
crane's  Apparatus  for  distilling  forced  over  into  the  furnace  C  D, 

Coal  and  Turf,  to  obtain  Oil.  ,  .  ,  ,       , 

and,  passing  up  through  the  peat, 
chars  it.     All  of  the  products,  as  well  those  from  the  com- 


VERTICAL   RETORTS.  99 

bustion  as  from  the  charring  furnace,  are  carried  off  by  the 
exit  pipes  F  F  to  the  mains  and  condensers  in  the  usual 
manner.  When  the  peat  is  carbonized,  the  charcoal  is 
drawn  out  at  E  into  covered  tanks  or  cast-iron  boxes. 

Next  to  the  form  of  the  retort,  the  position  of  it  is  a 
matter  of  importance  :  as  when  the  retorts  are  vertically  set 
in  the  bench,  with  the  eduction  pipe  at  the  upper  end,  as 
in  the  apparatus  described  in  the  American  patents  of 
C.  Cherry  and  K.  Schroeder  ;  these  have  the  advantage 
of  presenting  less  surface  to  the  fire  ;  and  while  the  retort 
is  thus  kept  cooler,  it  is  not  so  readily  corroded,  if  made 
of  iron  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  position  of  the  educ- 
tion pipe  at  the  upper  part  of  the  apparatus  produces 
much  loss  by  the  vapors  condensing  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  retort  before  reaching  this  pipe  ;  these  falling  back 
into  the  retort,  strike  its  hottest  portion,  and  become  to  a 
great  extent  decomposed  into  gas.  The  eduction  pipes 
are  rarely  wide  enough  ;  those  adapted  for  the  passage  of 
gas,  are  much  too  narrow  for  oil.  Yohl,  from  his  experi- 
ence at  Bonn,  states,  that  where  paper  coal  is  distilled, 
the  form  of  the  distilling  vessels  is*  essential.  Horizontal 
iron  retorts,  having  wide  escape  pipes,  are  preferable  to 
vertical  ones,  such  as  are  used  and  recommended  in  France. 
The  escape  pipes  should  not  be  above  the  level  of  the 
slate  to  be  distilled,  as  the  oily  vapors,  having  a  high  spe- 
cific gravity,  rise  only  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of 
the  mass,  until  urged  by  higher  heat,  which  would  decom- 
pose the  oils. 

Delahaye,  in  France,  proposed  to  use  4  vertical  retorts 
provided  with  several  horizontal  pipes  from  below,  up- 
wards. This  was  a  failure.  Mehlam,  on  the  Rhine,  has 
a  furnace  with  three  retorts,  fitted  up  by  Portman  &  Co. 
The  produce  was  small,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel 


100  RETORTS   AND   ESCAPE   PIPES. 

enormous.  These  retorts  are  •  filled  from  above,"  and 
emptied  below.  The  eduction  pipes  were  soon  closed  by 
accumulation  of  dust  in  them  from  the  cleaning  of  the 
retort.  The  tar  obtained  in  this  way  was  of  a  dark-brown 
color,  containing  9  to  10  per  cent,  of  coal  dust.  The 
yield  of  oil  and  paraffine  was  much  less  than  from  hori- 
zontal retorts. 

Weissman  &  Co.,  of  Augustine  furnace  at  Bauel, 
have  built  a  bench  of  10  horizontal  retorts,  two  retorts 
over  one  fire,  and  the  whole  connected  by  the  one  main. 
The  retorts  are  filled  in  front  with  air-dried  slate,  and  after 
the  period  of  distillation,  (6  hours,)  the  residue  is  removed 
by  iron  scrapers.  Two  retorts  were  worked  at  a  time,  and  in 
one  hour's  time,  so  that,  in  a  bench  of  10  retorts,  in  filling 
the  last  two  were  almost  exhausted  ;  the  watery  vapor 
rising  in  distillation,  carries  the  oily  vapors  into  the  main, 
and  keeps  it  so  warm  as  to  prevent  the  tar  from  solidify- 
ing. Lime  is  not  necessary  for  retaining  the  sulphur. 

Flattened  <^  retorts  prove  best  in  operation  on  paper 
coal :  8  feet  long,  30  inches  wide,  and  12  to  13  inches 
high,  are  the  best  proportions.  The  escape  pipes  should 
not  be  too  narrow,  because  each  pound  of  slate  gives, 
along  with  oil  and  water,  4  to  4J  cubic  feet  of  gas,  at  the 
same  time,  and  this  must  be  allowed  to  escape  rapidly  ; 
with  these  retorts  it  should  be  six  inches  wide.  When 
the  pipe  issues  from  the  neck  of  the  retort  it  answers  best. 

In  Herman's  furnace,  at  Gerstingen,  in  Siegengebir- 
gen,  the  main  is  a  little  sloped,  and  connected  with  the 
escape  pipes  of  the  retort  by  means  of  coupling-pipes  ; 
the  produce  is  received  into  casks  or  iron  reservoirs  ;  the 
gas  is  conducted  through  serpentine  pipes,  cooled  by 
water  ;  and  it  is  either  used  in  the  furnaces,  or  conducted 
into  chirnnies  or  blasts  for  removal. 


METALLIC   BATHS.  101 

The  products  form  2  strata  —  the  upper,  the  oil,  or  tar, 
and  the  lower,  pyrrhol,  with  ammoniaoal  solution,  they 
are  separated  "by  means  of  a  hung  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
vessel. 

An  ingenious  means  of  distilling  at  a  certain  tempera- 
ture, is  that  which  makes  use  of  the  warmth  of  a  mass 
of  melted  metal,  which  always  possesses  and  preserves  an 
uniform  temperature. 

The  process  patented  by  David  C.  Knab,  in  England, 
and  dated  January  24,  1853,  involved  the  use  of  baths  of 
fusible  metal,  which  produced  the  amount  of  heat  required 
for  distillation,  at  the  lowest  possible  temperatures,  by 
which  both  the  quality  of  the  oil  is  improved,  and  the 
quantity  augmented. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  different  temperatures  neces- 
sary, Knab  describes  several  alloys,  with  fusing  points 
varying  from  470°  to  797°  F.,  as  follows  :— 


Composition  of  alloy  for  Bath. 

Melting  point 

1.  4  parts  Tin,  10  of  Lead,  . 
2.  4        «          13       « 

.    470°  F. 
.        .        .        486°   " 

3.  4        «          18 

Cl 

.    505°   « 

4.  4        «  .        27 

It 

525°   « 

5.  4                   38 

u 

.    542°  « 

6.  4        "         70 

a 

558°  « 

7.  Lead  alone, 
8.  3  parts  Tin,  2  parts  Zinc, 
9.  Zinc  alone. 

/       .        .    610°   " 
.    612°  to  662°  (; 

680°   " 

10.  Antimony  alone,   .         .        .        .        .        797°   " 

These  alloys  are  kept  at  their  melting  point  during 
the  distillation.  The  first-mentioned  alloy  serves  for  dis- 
tilling wood,  while  No.  8  serves  for  the  distillation  of  turf; 
asphalt  e  may  be  distilled  by  the  aid  of  No.  9  ;  while  No. 
10  is  the  most  appropriate  for  pit-coal,  which,  however, 


102  ROTARY   RETORTS. 

yields,  with,  a  bath  of  No.  9,  a  considerable  amount  of 
volatile  hydro-carbon. 

The  apparatus  used  by  Knab  consisted  .of  an  air-tight 
metallic  box,  for  holding  the  alloy,  placed  above  the  fur- 
nace, through  "the.  centre  or  long  axis  of  the  box,  ran  the 
retort,  which  may  be  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the 
material  to  be  distilled  ;  the  elliptical  retort  serves  for 
coals  or  solid  bitumens  ;  the  retort  is  furnished  with  dis- 
charge-pipes for  carrying  off  the  volatile  products.  This 
apparatus  is  adapted  to  the  distillation  of  turf,  resins, 
"bones,  &c.,  as  well  as  coal,  lignite,  and  bituminous  schists. 

Fusible  metal  has  been  used  as  a  heating  agent,  in  the 
direct  way,  by  making  the  alloy,  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
traverse  a  coil  of  pipes  placed  inside  of  the  distilling 
vessel,  using  the  alloy  as  steam  is  commonly  used  in  steam- 
coils  :  this  is  the  plan  patented  by  Messrs.  Davies,  Syers 
&  Humfrey,  in  England,  December,  1855. 

In  order  to  obviate  the  injury  to  the  retorts,  arising 
from  the  continued  application  of  heat  upon  the  under- 
surface,  movable  retorts  have  been  adopted,  involving 
the  partial  or  complete  rotation  of  the  retort.  One  of  the 
earliest  forms  of  movable  retorts  was  that  breveted  by 
Gringembre,  of  France,  and  described  in  the  Brevets  d'  In- 
ventions, Vol.  IX.,  p.  235,  and  pi.  26.  In  that  case,  the 
retort,  after  having  been  charged  and  distilled,  was,  before 
the  new  charge  was  inserted,  turned  round  one-fourth  of  a 
revolution,  and  thus  a  new  surface  of  the  retort  was  pre- 
sented to  the  fire  ;  when  again  in  operation,  another  turn 
was  given,  and  thus,  after  four  distillations,  the  same  sur- 
face came  again  over  the  flame.  By  this  means,  the  iron 
retorts  were  made  to  last  five  or  six  .times  as  long  as  they 
otherwise  would. 

The  advantage  of  this  change  of  surface,  led  to  a  mo- 


REVOLVING   RETORTS.  103 

tion  of  revolution  going  on  during  the  operation  of  distil- 
lation. The  brevet  of  Beslay  &  Kouen,  described  in 
Brevets  d'  Inventions,  Vol.  XLIII.,  pi.  6,  patented  this 
mode  of  renewing  the  surface  over  the  fire. 

In  April  15,  1858,  David  Alter  &  S.E.  Hill,  obtained 
a  patent  for  an  improvement  in  distillation  of  oils  from 
coal,  &c.,  which  consisted  in  the  use  of  a  revolving  cylin-  j 
drical  metallic  retort,  with  the  eduction-pipe  coinciding 
with  the  axle,  and  connected  with  the  condenser  ;  the 
motion  was  communicated  by  a  series  of  wheels  worked 
by  a  weight,  or  other  power.  The  retorts  revolve  slowly. 

T.  D.  Sargent  obtained  a  patent  in  June  15,  1858, 
for  a  revolving  retort,  made  of  clay,  and  worked  somewhat 
similar  to  the  foregoing ;  other  patents,  involving  slight 
novelties  in  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  retort  and 
issue-pipes,  have  been  obtained  within  the  last  two  years. 

The  use  of  revolving-retorts,  while  leading  to  economy 
of  the  iron-retort,  is  perhaps  no  economy  in  the  general 
manufacture  ;  for,  accompanying  the  rotation  of  the  cylin- 
der on  its  axis,  is  the  constant  disturbance  of  the  coal, 
which,  while  it  presents  fresh  surfaces  of  the  mineral  to 
the  action  of  heat,  also,  by  attrition,  grinds  into  a  powder, 
a  portion  of  which  is  always  necessarily  carried  up  with 
the  fluids,  and  gives  not  only  a  dark-colored,  thick  oil, 
containing  solid  matter  undissolved  in  it,  but  the  pipes 
and  eduction-tube  are  very  apt  to  get  clogged  from  the 
accumulation  at  the  bends  of  the  apparatus.  The  exit- 
pipes  are  rarely  wide  enough,  in  this  form  of  retort,  to 
meet  or  cope  with  this  accident.  The  oil  obtained  re- 
quires additional  purification. 

To  prevent  this  fine  dust  being  carried  over  the  end 
of  the  eduction  pipe  in '  the  retort,  is,  in  some  apparatus 
(as  in  Sargent's),  bent  upward  at  an  elbow  to  reach  nearly 


104  AGITATING   ARMS. 

the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder  ;  in  others,  as  in  that 
patented  by  Jas.  Gillespie,  March,  1859,  the  mouth  of  the 
pipe  is  hopper-shaped,  and  is  kept  in  a  stationary  vertical 
position  inside  of  the  retort,  by  means  of  pins,  which  sur- 
round and  are  inserted  into  the  journal. 

In  the  apparatus  patented  by  J.  &  W.  B.  McCue,  the 
retort  revolves  J  of  its  periphery  by  wheel  and  crank  ar- 
rangement, and  then  returned  to  its  original  position,  and 
this  motion  is  repeated  several  times  during  distillation  ; 
^the  interior  of  the  retort  has  ribs  running  along  its  inner 
surface  from  front  to  rear,  and  a  few  inches  apart ;  by  this 
means,  the  coal  was  somewhat  kept  in  place,  and  the 
constant  agitation  modified  to  a  lesser  degree. 

As  all  revolving  retorts  must  be  built  in  loosely  in  the 
brick  casing,  they  are  liable  to  get  out  of  place,  and  the 
mechanism  of  operation  is  much  more  complex  ;  these 
circumstances  are  drawbacks  to  their  operation  and  exten- 
sion in  use,  were  they  not  subject  to  the  objections  already 
stated. 

There  is  no  evidence  yet  afforded  to  show  that  the  use 
of  revolving  retorts  is  accompanied  with  any  solid  advan- 
tages over  stationary  retorts. 

The  coal  or  bitumen  in  the  retort  being  very  apt  to 
burn,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  prevent  such  an 
accident,  the  most  obvious  plan  being,  to  keep  the  coals  in 
motion.  The  revolving  retorts  effect  this  to  a  degree. 
Additional  apparatus  for  stirring  has  been  recommended. 
Solid  arms  traversing  the  retort  in  its  long  axis,  having 
blades  or  stirrers  attached  thereto,  have  been  patented 
in  England,  in  1854,  by  Astley  P.  Price,  who  used  a  ver- 
tical retort,  with  agitating  arms  revolving  in  the  centre, 
and  allowing  the  coal  to  fall  down  at  the  sides  ;  the  coal 
is  fed  in  by  a  hopper,  and  an  Archimedes  screw  used  some- 


ARCHIMEDEAN   SCREW.  105 

times  instead,  placing  the  retort  at  variable  angles  of  in- 
clination. 

The  English  patent  of  F.  Archer  and  W.  Papineau, 
dated  December  15,  1854,  involved  the  use  of  feed-rakes, 
or  agitators,  which,  on  revolution,  made  a  screw-like  mo- 
tion, and  thus  pushed  the  materials  progressively  onward. 
A  horizontal  cylindrical  retort,  fed  by  a  hopper,  was  the 
apparatus  used  in  this  patent,  in  combination  with  the 
feed-rakes. 

In  this  country,  similar  agitating  knives  or  stirrers,  are 
described  in  the  apparatus  of  C.  Cherry  (1856)  ;  John 
Nicholson  (1859)  ;  Joseph  E.  Holmes  (1859)  ;  and  KB. 
Hatch  (1859).  The  use  of  agitators  is  open  to  the  same 
objection  as  that  of  revolving  retorts,  viz.,  raising  a  quan- 
tity of  fine  dust,  which  is  carried  up  and  clogs  the  pipes  : 
this  acts  to  a  less  extent  where  the  retort  is  vertical,  than 
when  it  lies  horizontal. 

The  Archimedean  screw  is  an  old  application  in  gas 
retorts,  and  has  been  transferred  to  coal-oil  stills.  The 
apparatus  patented  by  Count  de  Hompesch  contained 
this  screw,  which,  while  it  kept  the  coal  in  agitation,  also 
delivered  the  coke  out  of  the  farther  end  of  the  retort ; 
the  screw,  in  this  case,  fitting  the  internal  bore  of  the  re- 
tort accurately.  The  retort  was  placed  horizontally,  with 
a  slight  slope. 

In  the  American  patent  issued  to  Jas.  O'Hara,  Feb., 
1859,  an  upright  retort  is  worked  with  an  Archimedean 
screw  of  less  diameter  than  the  bore,  the  result  of  which 
is,  that,  while  the  coal  in  the  centre  of  the  retort  is  grad- 
ually drawn  upwards  by  the  screw,  the  mineral  lying  be- 
tween the  edge  of  the  screw  and  the  wall  of  the  retort  is 
in  a  state  of  continual  descent,  and  thus  a  constantly  pro- 
gressive motion  of  the  material  distilled  is  being  kept  up. 


106  TOWER   DISTILLATION. 

In  order  to  relieve  the  interior  of  the  retorts  from  the 
pressure  of  the  vapors  as  they  are  generating,  various 
means  have  been  adopted  to  remove  the  nascent  vapors 
Aspirators  have  been  used  in  gas  works  for  a  similar  ob- 
ject, and  their  application  in  this  species  of  distillation 
has  been  attended  with  great  benefit. 

Aspirators  have  been  used  in  the  processes  patented 
by  Bellford,  and  others,  in  England,  and  by  L.  Atwood,  in 
this  country. 

A;  E.  L  Belford,  in  his  English  patent  (August  22, 
1853),  describes  the  vertical  tower  or  furnace,  whose 
height  is  four  times  its  breadth,  and  capable  of  holding 
three  tons  ;  when  the  charge  was  delivered  in  by  a  inan-^ 
hole  above,  a  fire  was  lighted  below,  and  the  distillation 
allowed  to  proceed.  The  heated  products  of  combustion 
passing  upwards,  carried  upward  the  oils  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  fire  upon  the  stratum  of  coal  immediately 
above  it,  which,  as  the  fire  progressed,  was  driven  through 
the  exit  pipe  at  the  upper  part  of  the  chimney,  into  the 
condenser,  the  coal,  as  it  was  consumed,  gradually  drop- 
ping downward,  and  ultimately  being  removed  by  rakes 
through  the  opening  immediately  above  the  fire-bars. 

Wm.  Brown  patented,  in  England  (August  23, 1853), 
a  mode  of  distilling  coals  and  bitumen  in  an  upright 
tower,  making  use  of  the  fire  beneath  to  volatilize  the 
newly-formed  products. 

It  may  be  observed  of  the  distillation  by  towers  or 
chimneys,  that  two  principles,  distinct  from  those  in  com- 
mon use,  and  not  hitherto  described,  are  involved;  the 
first  being  the  absence  of  application  of  external  heat  to 
the  distilling  vessel ;  and  the  second,  the  distillation  by 
means  of  gaseous  or  vaporous  matter,  not  in  a  state  of 


DILTILLATION    BY   STEAM.  107 

ignition :  each  of  these  principles  deserve  some  notice  in 
this  place. 

It  has  been  already  frequently  mentioned,  that  solid 
substances,  exposed,  in  close  vessels,  to  naked  flame,  are 
very  liable  to  become  burned  in  some  places,  and  to  be- 
come converted,  at  such  points,  into  gas,  while,  in  other 
parts  of  the  same  vessel,  the  distillation  of  condensible 
vapors  is  going  on  slowly  ;  in  iron  retorts,  this  is  constant- 
ly the  case,  even  when  it  is  coated  internally  with  an 
enamel  or  glaze,  as  in  the  apparatus  patented  by  Messrs. 
Evans,  in  England,  Sept.  14,  1854.  To  avoid  this  burn- 
ing, heating  the  mass  from  within  has  been  tried,  and 
forms  the  subject  of  many  patents. 

Open  steam,  or  steam  of  ordinary  temperature  and 
pressure,  has  been  used  in  various  ways,  either  by  admit- 
ting it  by  a  perforate^  pipe  into  the  retort,  while  the 
outside  was  heated  in  the  ordinary  way ;  or  by  wetting 
the  coal  before  being  placed  in  the  retort ;  as  the  tem- 
perature of  the  retort  rises,  the  water  becomes  vaporized, 
and  carries  the  oils  over  with  it.  Used  in  this  way, 
steam  cannot  be  considered  properly  a  heating  agent,! 
since  its  chief  action  is  to  absorb  heat  from  the  coal,  and 
thus  really  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  inside  of  the 
retort  below  what  it  would  otherwise  be.  But  it  is  other- 
wise when  steam  is  used  either  under  high  pressure  or  as 
super-heated  steam  ;  in  the  latter  case,  its  action  is  two- 
fold— it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  inside  of  the  retort  ; 
and  2dly,  it  decomposes  the  coal  into  oils.  The  steam  is 
generally  super-heated  by  being  passed  through  coils  of 
iron  pipe  traversing  the  furnace  beneath  the  retort :  where 
external  heat  is  not  applied  to  the  retort,  a  separate  fire 
is  required.  When  the  steam  is  heated  to  660°,  or 
thereabouts,  distillation  of  the  coal  goes  on  freely,  and  nc 


108  SUPER-HEATED    STEAM. 

external  heat  is  needed  :  but  in  very  many  patented  pro- 
cesses, both  internal  and  external  heat  are  applied  con- 
temporaneously ;  such  is  the  case  in  the  patent  of  Win. 
Brown,  January  13,  1853  ;  also  of  J.  F.  F.  Challeton, 
October  21,  1853  ;  of  GL  F.  Wilson,  February  15,  1854  ; 
and  of  J.  Chisholm,  December  19,  1853  ;  in  all  of 
which,  except  that  of  Wilson,  super-heated  steam  was 
used  internally. 

Super-heated  steam  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  agents 
in  the  hands  of  the  chemist  for  producing  chemical  de- 
composition ;  and  the  happy  applications  of  Violette  and 
Scharling  to  various  technical  purposes,  are  proofs  of  its 
advantageous  use  in  many  cases.  % 

Iu  the  distillation  of  coals  or  other  materials  to  produce 
hydro-carbon  oils,  it  may  be  questioned,  however,  whethej 
its  use  is  advisable  ;  for,  if  we  consider  that  the  object  of 
destructive  distillation  in  close  vessels  is  to  preserve  the 
material  from  the  oxidation  of  external  air,  which,  at  high 
temperatures,  is  very  powerful,  the  use  of  a  substance 
capable  of  yielding,  and  which  does  yield  oxygen  abun- 
dantly at  high  temperatures,  may  very  properly  be  con- 
sidered inappropriate  :  at  high  temperatures,  carbon  has 
sufficient  affinity  for  oxygen  to  abstract  the  latter  from 
hydrogen ;  and  hence,  steam  is  decomposed  by  charcoal, 
and  carbonic  oxide  produced  with  the  formation  of  hydro- 
gen. This  liability  of  the  carbon  to  be  oxidated  is  to  be 
obviated  if  possible  ;  and  when  heated  gases  or  vapors  are 
to  be  used,  those  should  be  selected  which  do  not  yield 
oxygen  :  air,  whose  oxygen  has  been  wholly  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  by  complete  combustion,  is  such  ;  but 
it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  practically  to  obtain  any 
supply  of  it.  Nitrogen  gas,  derived  from  the  deoxida- 
tion  of  air,  would  be  a  valuable  agent  ;  perhaps  the  most 


INTERNAL-HEATED   GASES.  109 

efficient  would  be  hydrogen  gas,  which,  by  uniting  with 
the  free  carbon  in  the  retort,  might  itself  increase  the 
production  of  oils  ;  hydrogen  might  be  obtained  by  the 
decomposition  of  water  in  redhot  vessels  in  the  presence 
of  scraps  of  iron,  &c.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  apply 
any  gas  or  vapor  with  sufficient  economy  to  make  it  a 
useful  improvement  ;  and  where  it  has  been  once  used,  as 
by  Wagenmann,  the  practice  has  been  given  up  as  being 
too  complex  and  too  little  remunerative. 

The  only  exception  to  this,  is,  the  use  of  the  heated 
products  of  combustion,  in  which  the  air  is,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, deprived  of  its  free  oxygen  by  the  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  carbonic  oxide  ;  there  is  present,  also,  some 
water  in  the  form  of  steam,  and  some  sulphuric  acid, 
where  the  air  has  previously  passed  through  ignited  coal. 

The  only  positively  deleterious  agent  present,  is  that 
portion  of  heated  air  which  has  not  lost  its  free  oxygen. 
This  proportion  is,  however,  small ;  and  therefore,  of  all 
means  of  heating  by  gases  passed  through  the  material 
itself,  the  "heated  products  of  combustion/'  as  these 
gases  are  called,  is  the  most  economical  and  desirable. 

In  the  English  patent  of  Wm.  Little,  dated  Feb.  4, 
]  854,  these  products  are  employed  as  follows  :  air  is  either 
driven  through  a  fire  by  a  blast,  or  drawn  through  by  an 
aspirator ;  after  being  "  burned,"  as  it  is  termed,  it  is 
passed  into  the  distilling  vessel  at  its  bottom,  which  it 
warms  in  transitu;  it  then  passes  upwards  through  the 
coal,  to  be  discharged  by  an  eduction  pipe  or  chimney  at 
top,  associated  with  the  hydro-carbon  vapors  which  it  pro- 
duced in  its  passage. 

This  is  an  upward  distillation,  and  is  liable  to  the  ob- 
jection already  raised  against  the  method  of  ascensional 
distillation  for  obtaining  hydro-carbon  oils,  namely,  that 


110  INTEKNAL   HEAT. 

the  oils,  wben  formed,  are  readily  condensible  in  the  upper 
par-t  of  the  still,  and  tend  to  drop  down  into  the  bottom 
of  the  heated  retort,  and  become  converted  into  permanent 
gases. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  adoption  of  distillation 
by  gaseous  heating  internally,  and  the  removal  of  external 
heat  by  naked  pre,  leads  to  a  large  increase  in  the  produce 
of  oil — an  increase  from  33  to  60  per  cent,  in  many  cases 
— that  is  to  say,  that  coal  yielding  33  per  cent,  of  crude 
oil  by  naked  fire,  may  be  made  to  yield  even  60  per  cent, 
by  using  burned  air  alone.  When  the  merits  of  this  pro- 
cess become  better  known,  it  will  be  more  universally 
adopted. 

J?he  principle  involved  in  the  method  of  distilling  coal, 
patented  by  Dr.  L.  Atwood  in  October,  1858,  is  virtually 
that  by  which  the  peat  is  distilled  in  the  apparatus  of 
Crane,  already  referred  to  ;  but  in  carrying  out  the  prin- 
ciple, the  practice  is  modified.  In  both,  the  distillation 
is  carried  on  by  the  heated  products  of  combustion,  being 
passed  through  the  material  to  be  distilled,  no  external 
fire  being  applied  ;  the  retort  has  a  tower  or  chimney- 
shape  ("  pipe,"  technically),  into  which  the  coal  is  de- 
livered from  above  ;  a  fire  being  lighted  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  the  eduction  pipe  is  placed  at  the  bottom,  and 
is  furnished,  before  it  reaches  the  condenser,  with  a  steam 
jet-pipe,  which,  when  operated  with  a  steam  blast,  by  ex- 
hausting the  tower,  determines  a  current  downward,  carry- 
ing the  heated  products  of  combustion  (carbonic  oxide, 
carbonic  acid,  some  steam,  and  some  undeoxided  air)  down 
through  the  coal,  and  thus  distilling  the  oil  which  it  carries 
along  with  it  into  the  condenser. 

The  progress  of  distillation  is  more  constant  and  uni- 
form in  this  tower  retort  than  in  any  other  form  of  ap- 


TOWER   DISTILLATION.  Ill 

paratus.  The  tower  has  many  advantages  :  1st.  Its  great 
capacity,  which  is  now  being  made  capable  of  holding  25 
tons  in  one  of  Atwood's  pipes  ;  from  one  to  four  tons  are 
the  more  ordinary  quantity  distilled  in  a  tower  ;  the  dis- 
tillation goes  on  until  the  oil  ceases  to  come  over,  and  is 
usually  three  days  in  operation  :  when  it  terminates,  a  jet 
of  Croton  water  from  a  hose  is  made  to  play  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  tower  until  the  coal  is  extinguished.  Fire- 
brick and  fire-stone  are  the  materials. 

The  advantage  of  Atwood's  mode  of  distillation  over 
the  other  analogous  processes,  which  involve  the  use  of 
the  heated  products  of  combustion  as  the  agent  of  distil- 
lation, consists  in  conducting  the  vapors  downwards.  By 
this  means,  the  nascent  oils  do  not  by  condensation  fall 
back  or  down  upon  the  fire  beneath,  and  by  being  con- 
verted into  gas,  cause  a  loss  of  the  distillate  :  this  is 
what  must  occur  in  the  method  adopted  by  Du  Buis- 
son,  which,  in  almost  every  other  respect,  resembles 
Atwood's. 

Dr.  Atwood  has  patented  other  forms  of  apparatus 
for  distillation  of  coal  oils^  all,  however,  preserving  this 
feature  of  downward  distillation  :  thus,  in  one  apparatus, 
the  fire  is  external  to  the  tower,  and  communicated  with 
its  upper  part  by  a  series  of  flues,  through  which  the 
heated  gases  are  drawn  into  the  pipe. 

From  the  foregoing  details  of  the  various  modes  of 
applying  heat,  it  is  evident  that  the  improvements  made  I 
have  been  in  lessening  the  actual  amount  of  heat  applied,  i 
in  distributing  the   heat   more   equally  over  the   whole 
inside  of  the  vessel.     In  the  gradual  desuetude  of  the 
practice  of  external  heat  to  retorts,  and  in  the  use  of 
chimney  retorts  or  pipes,  and  in  the  use  of  the  heated  ' 
products  of  combustion,  as  the  agent  for  supplying  the  • 


112  TOWER   DISTILLATION. 

internal  temperature  in  the  pipe.  Viewed  independent 
of  local  causes,  which  occasionally  determine  certain 
methods  of  manufacture,  not  in  themselves  generally 
desirable,  the  process,  as  patented  by  Atwood,  may  be 
looked  upon  theoretically  as  par  excellence  the  most 
advantageous  method  of  distilling  photogenic  oils. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

COMMERCIAL  MANUFACTURE. 

IK  another  portion  of  this  work,  the  result  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  coals  and  bituminous  substances,  with  regard 
to  the  amount  of  produce  obtained,  has  been  given.  In- 
asmuch as  the  bituminous  differs  in  no  respect  intrinsi- 
cally in  whatever  country  found,  the  results  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  American  coal  can  in  no  respect  greatly  vary 
from  that  of  European  coals  :  the  difference  in  the  results 
are  due  to  the  different  modes  of  working,  as  it  has  been 
shown  in  the  chapter  upon  the  application  of  heat,  that 
the  application  and  continued  exhibition  of  the  appropri- 
ate temperature  has  more  effect  in  producing  abundance 
of  oils,  than  even  the  different  quality  of  the  coal,  where 
the  variability  of  the  latter  is  not  extreme. 

The  following  table  of  results  of  examinations  of  Can- 
nel  coal  from  different  localities,  has  been  kindly  placed 
at  the  author's  disposal  by  Prof.  Asahel  K.  Eaton,  of 
New  York  : — 

8 


114 


AMERICAN   PRODUCE. 


State. 

Locality. 

Amount  of 
Crude  Oil  per  Ton. 

Ammoniaeal 
liquors, 
per  cent. 

Kentucky, 

Breckenridge  Cannel, 

140  Gall. 

33 

6fc 

it                                   t( 

100       " 

33 

Virginia, 

Cannelton, 

105       " 

16 

Ohio, 

near  Cannelton, 
Cochocton  Co., 

93      " 

87     " 

20 

20 

fct 

60     " 

25 

Mahoning  Co., 
Lower  Bed,  Canfield, 

75     " 

ssll 

Middle    "           " 

70     " 

83  IS 

Upper     "           " 

60     «* 

Mahoning  Co.,  Lima,                   ) 

Upper  and  Middle  Bed,  f 
"       Lower  Bed, 

70     " 
45     " 

90 

25 

"       unknown  locality, 
Jefferson  Co.,  near  Steubenville, 

66     " 
70     " 

83 

30 

U                               U                            U 

45     " 

16 

Pennsylvania, 

Columbiana  Co.,  E.  Palestine, 
Beaver  Co.,  Darlington, 

45      " 
55      " 

25 

33 

"       near    " 

40      u 

25 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  crude  oil,  as  it  runs  from 
the  retorts  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.,  was  about  21° 
Baume. 

In  contrasting  the  results  which  such  tables  as  the 
foregoing  yield,  with  those  obtained  by  commercial  manu- 
facture, allowance  must  be  made,  on  the  one  hand,  for  the 
delicacy  of  the  manipulation,  and  on  the  other,  for  the 
non-attendance  to  the  precautions  needed  to  avoid  loss  in 
distillation  ;  this  loss,  or  the  difference  between  the  re- 
sults, amounts  to  nearly  25  per  cent. 

Professor  Eaton  believes  that  the  loss  in  actual  work- 
ing results  arises  from  inattention  to  the  following  indis- 
pensable conditions  : — 

1st.  That  coal  should  be  finely  crushed,  the  finer  the 
better. 

2d.  The  retorts  should  be  worked  at  a  very  low  red 
heat — the  retort  not  being  visibly  red  by  daylight. 

3d.  There  should  be  no  pressure  whatever  upon  the 
retorts,  but,  if  possible,  a  slight  exhaust  action. 

4th.  A  gas-tight  retort.  Leakage  of  the  retorts  ac- 
counts for  much  of  the  difference  between  practical  results 


COMMERCIAL  MANUFACTURE.  115 

and  laboratory  practice,  a  difference  which  will  cease  to 
be  found  whenever  the  above  conditions  are  regarded  by 
the  manufacturer. 

The  produce  by  the  operation  of  the  revolving  retort, 
patented  by  Alter  &  Hill,  is  very  great.  The  retorts  are 
now  used  8  feet  long,  by  6  feet  in  diameter  ;  the  retorts 
are  charged  every  2  hours  with  16  bushels  of  the  cannel 
coal  of  the  vicinity,*  and  the  charge, is  renewed  12  times 
daily  ;  the  yield  is,  on  average,  500  gallons  daily  of  crude 
oil,  which,  on  purification  by  simple  redistillation  in  large 
iron  stills,  yields  about  70  per  cent,  of  commercial  coal 
oil 

The  produce  of  the  Lucesco  and  other  works  will  be 
given  farther  on,  when  treating  of  the  localities  where 
the  manufacture  is  carried  on. 

According  to  Dr.  Augustein,  in  1855  there  were  three 
establishments  in  Germany,  one  in  Hamburg,  that  of 
Wiesmann  &  Co.,  near  Bonn,  and  that  of  Denis  &  Hoech, 
at  Ludwigshafen.  The  number  since  then  has  increased. 

The  Hamburg  establishment  uses  cannel  coal,  and 
treats  the  distillate  with  sulphuric  acid  after  it  has  been 
distilled  several  times  ;  it  then  resembles  rock  oil  or  pe- 
troleum, having  a  specific  gravity  of  .785,  and  having 
very  little  of  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  mineral  oil,  being 
very  free  from  sulphur,  and  is  very  superior  to  other  simi- 
lar products  on  that  account,  thereby  allowing  its  use  in 
the  worst  ventilated  rooms,  and  has  a  photometric  value, 
compared  with  oil,  as  4  to  1. 

These  oils  are  much  used  for  street  illumination  in 
Northern  Germany ;  at  the  Hanover  railroads,  in  all 
lamps  placed  out-doors,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted,  as 
it  never  freezes  during  winter. 

*  Thirty  miles  above  Pittsburg,  on  the  Alleghany  river. 


116  WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS. 

The  residuum  of  the  second  distillation  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  artificial  fuel,  known  as  the  Charbon 
de  Paris. 

Paraffine  is  not  prepared  in  Hamburg.  The  residual 
paraffinized  oil  is  broken  up  or  subjected  to  another  dis- 
tillation at  high  temperatures,  in  order  to  obtain  light 
fluids  by  the  decomposition  of  the  paraffine. 

At  the  establ^hraent  near  Bonn;  lignite,  found  in  that 
vicinity,  called  leaf  or  paper  coal,  is  operated  on,  which  is 
distilled  at  a  low  red  heat,  in  iron  retorts  like  those  used 
in  gas  works  ;  a  blockish  tar  and  ammoniacal  liquid  are 
the  products.  The  former  yields  90  per  cent,  of  oils,  £>Q 
per  cent,  of  which  are  thin  enough  to  burn  in  lamps ;  they 
are  purified  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  alka- 
line ley. 

The  process  of  manufacture  of  the  hydro-carbon  oils, 
is  carried  on  at  Bonn  by  Mr.  P.  Wagenmann  thus  : — 

The  bituminous  coal  is  broken  into*  small  lumps  the 
size  of  a  nut,  and  where  the  coal  contains  sulphur,  it  is 
sprinkled  over  with  milk  of  lime  ;  the  coal  is  then  placed 
in  a  desiccating  furnace,  60  metres  long,  6  metres  wide, 
and  divided  into  compartments  with  high  walls  more  than  y 
half  a  metre  high,  and  1TW  metres  *Jhigh *  these  form  the 
supports  of  so  many  vaults  on.which  the  schists  are  placed 
to  be  dried  ;  below  these  are  the  waste  residues  of  the 
distilled  materials. 

When  the  coals  are  dried,  they  are  distilled  in  retorts 
resembling  those  employed  in  manufacture  of  gas,  except 
that  the  exit  pipe  is  at  the  end  opposite  to  the  mouth  ; 
two  retorts  are  set  over  each  fire  :  the  retorts  are  about 
7|-  feet  long,  and  22  inches  wide,  with  discharge  tubes 
12  to  15  centimetres  wide.  The  flame  plays  only  on 

*  The  metre  is  equal  to  39.T3o77  inches. 


WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS.  117 

the  bottom  of  the  retorts,  and  thence  passes  into  the 
chimney. 

Wagenmann  prefers  a  bench  of  16  retorts  and  8  fires, 
disposed  round  a  central  chimney,  so  that  the  flame  may 
circulate  from  one  flue  to  another,  and  submit  the  re- 
torts to  an  increasing  heat :  the  products  of  distillation 
of  the  16  retorts  are  led  off  by  an  iron  pipe  78  feet  long 
and  23  inches  wide,  kept  constantly  cooled  by  a  strea\n  of 
water  on  the  outside.  When  the  gases  are  passed  through 
this  pipe,  they  enter  into  a  large  iron  cylinder  filled  with 
coke,  which  rids  them  of  the  last  traces  of  tar  they  may 
possess  ;  thence  they  flow  into  a  chimney  14  feet  high, 
furnished  with  a  draught  and  regulator. 

The  liquid  products  of  distillation  flow  into  a  grand 
reservoir,  kept  constantly  at  a  temperature  of  30  C.,  in 
which  the  tar  separates  from  the  ammoniacal  waters  ; 
these  waters  are  mixed  with  the  residue  of  the  large  re- 
torts, and  furnish  an  excellent  manure. 

The  tar  is  drawn  up  by  pumps  into  the  purifying 
apparatus,  where  it  is  mixed  with  sulphate  of  iron  in  the 
proportion  of  1,000  parts  of  tar  with  40  parts  of  sulphate 
digested  together  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour  at  30° 
cent.*  The  purifiers  are  large  cast  iron  vessels  of  the 
capacityof-20  hectolitres,f  in  which  the  iron  pipes  move 
by  mechanical  power. 

The  tar  thus  freed  from  sulphure^  of  ammonium  is 
introduced  into  distilling  vessels  capable  of  holding  350 
gallons,  and  distilled  by  .superheated  steam.  The  pro- 
ducts of  distillation  condense  in  a  leaden  coil  32  to  39 
feet  long,  and  7  to  8  cent.  wide.  The  following  products 
of  distillation  are  distilled  in  this  way,  i.  e.,  by  fractional 
distillation : — 

*  Centimetre — ^  of  an  inch. 

f  A  hectolitre  is  nearly  equal  to  26-£  gallons,  wine  measure. 


118  WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS. 

1st.  Volatile  liquid,  having  specific  gravity=.700  to  .865 
2d.   Heavy  oils,  for  lubrication,      «  =.865  to  .900 

3d.   Paraffine,  "  =.900  to  .930 

These  three  substances  are  treated  each  with  4,  6, 
and  8  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  1}  and  2  per  cent, 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  1  per  cent,  acid  chromate  potass, 
with  which  they  are  agitated  for  half  an  hour.  Allowed 
to  rest  for  three  hours,  they  are  poured  off  the  dregs,  and 
mixed  respectively  with  2,  3,  and  4  per  cent,  of  a  ley  of 
caustic  potass  (marking  50  Baume")  in  iron  vessels  : 
finally,  each  of  the  products  purified  are  placed  in  a  still, 
and  distilled  by  superheated  steam. 

No.  1,  mixed  with  No.  2,  so  as  to  obtain  the  specific 
gravity  of  0.820,  produces  the  Mineral  Oil,  or  Photogen, 
which  is  burned  in  lamps  adapted  for  that  object. 

Part  of  the  product  distilled  from  No.  2  having  a 
specific  gravity  .860  to  .700,  forms  the  Solar  Oil,  which 
may  be  burned  in  Argand  or  Carcel  lamps. 

The  remainder  of  No.  2,  mixed  with  some  of  the 
product  of  No.  3,  furnishes  the  Lubricating  Oil  for 
machines. 

The  rest  of  No.  3  is  introduced  into  a  vat,  where  the 
temperature  is  lowered  until  it  crystallizes  :  in  three  or 
four  weeks,  the  paraffine  crystallizes  in  large  tablets,  and 
is  separated  from  adherent  oil  by  centrifugal  machines 
making  2,000  revolutions  per  minute ;  the  paraffine, 
melted  and  rolled  into  squares,  is  submitted,  while  cold, 
to  the  hydraulic  press,  under  a  pressure  of  300,000  Ibs. : 
it  is  melted  again,  and  treated  with  50  per  cent,  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  at  a  temperature  of  180°  C. 
At  the  end  of  two  hours,  the  paraffine  separates  from  the 
acid,  and  is  washed  with  water  ;  it  is  then  run  into  cakes, 
and  pressed,  while  hot,  between  two  layers  of  hair  cloth 


WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS.  119 

in  the  hydraulic  press,  melted  anew,  and  mixed  with  5 
per  cent,  of  stearine,  for  some  hours,  at  a  temperature 
of  150°  C.,  in  a  leaden  apparatus,  and  finally  mixed  with 
1  per  cent,  of  solution  of  caustic  potass,  marking  40° 
Baume.  At  the  end  of  two  hours,  all  impurities  are  pre- 
cipitated, and  the  paraffine,  limpid  as  water,  is  ready  to 
be  drawn  off. 

Wagenmann,  having  worked  one  year  with  the  pro- 
cess just  described,  which  was  patented  by  him  in  1853, 
found  it  very  defective  in  operation  ;  the  stills  were  unre- 
liable, owing  to  unequal  action  of  the  heat,  causing — Istly. 
Irregular  results  in  distillation;  the  adjustment  of  the  heat 
not  being  manageable,  so  as  to  keep  down  the  augmenting 
temperature  of  the  oil.  2dly.  The  time  occupied  in  dis- 
tillation was  too  long — the  oils  requiring  two  rectifica- 
tions ;  one  still  containing  1,500  quarts  requiring  36  hours 
for  distillation,  and  12  hours  for  subsequent  cooling  and 
purifying,  there  could  then  be  only  two  distillations  of 
1,500  quarts,  in  96  hours.  3dly.  The  separation  of  the 
oils  was  very  incomplete  ;  if  a  still,  distilling  oil  of  .870 
specific  gravity,  be  put  out  of  operation,  allowed  to  cool, 
and  then  repeated,  it  will  distil  oil  not  of  .870,  but  of  .920 
specific  gravity :  for  this  reason,  the  oils  so  distilled  fur- 
nish always  but  little  of  a  light  thin  fluid,  and  contain 
paraffine,  which  is  not  desirable.  4thly.  The  temperature 
in  the  still,  even  when  steam  was  employed,  became  too 
high,  the  loss  also  being  large,  as  only  91  to  92  per  cent, 
of  distilled  fluids  are  obtained  from  the  still.  This  loss 
was  so  great  as  to  have  led  Wagenmann  to  adopt  a  differ- 
ent mode  of  distillation ; — he  was  led  to  think  that  dis- 
tillation in  vacuo  would  remove  all  these  defects. 

To  remedy  the  injury  arising  from  suddenly  cooling  or 
heating  iron  retorts,  he  added  ends  of  copper  to  the  iron 


120  WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS. 

body  of  the  retort,  and  used  copper  riveting.     The  dis- 
tillation of  tar,  after  it  is  separated  from  sulphide  of  am- 
.   monium,  commences  above  the  temperature  of  high  pres- 
j   sure  steam,  and  is  best  effected  by  the  combustion  of  the 
gas,  derived  from  the  distillation  of  the  crude  tar. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  two  sections  of  a  sphere, 
with  a  cylindrical-shaped  vessel  in  the  centre,  capable  of 
containing  1,500  to  1,800  quarts,  with  -a  diameter  of  6 
feet ;  the  lower  hemisphere  is  surrounded  with  a  jacket 
perforated  with  holes,  opening  into  a  pipe  leading  to  the 
flue  ;  the  gas  burners  enter  through  apertures  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  jacket,  the  gas  burners  consuming  80  cubic 
feet  per  hour  ;  a  try-cock  is  attached  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  vessel ;  also  one  for  the  admission  of  steam,  through 
a  circular  coil ;  on  the  cylinder  is  the  cock  connected  with 
the  supply-box,  and  the  steam  cock  for  the  coil ;  a  cock 
for  the  direct  supply  of  naked  steam  ;  a  tube  for  drawing 
off  the  liquid  matters  to  settle  ;  and  a  pipe  connecting  the 
cylinder  with  the  reservoir.  The  cylinder  is  surrounded  on 
the  outside  by  a  stratum  of  clay,  loam,  and  straw,  chopped, 
to  the  thickness  of  3  inches,  so  as  to  prevent .  the  escape 
of  heat.  The  man-hole  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the  ves- 
sel, a  thermometer  graduated  to  300°  Celsius  ;  a  barom- 
eter ;  an  air-cock  ;  two  eye-pieces  for  observations  of 
the  workmen  ;  a  pipe  5  inches  high  leads  from  the  man- 
hole to  the  supply  vessel ;  this,  as  well  as  the  hemisphere, 
has  the  same  coating  as  the  cylinder. '  The  main,  or  1st 
receiving  vessel,  is  a  double  column,  connected  internally 
with  the  condenser,  the  outer  column  receiving  the  heavy 
fluid  distilling  over,  which  falls  back  again  into  the  still. 
f  The  outer  column  has  also  the  pipe  for  the  reception  of 
fluid  destined  for  the  supply  vessel  alluded  to  above  ;  a 
pipe  for  injecting  cold  water  to  condense  ;  also  a  main 


PURIFICATION    OF    CRUDE   OIL.  121 

cork  to  disconnect  the  apparatus,  and  the  air-pump  ;  to 
this  is  connected  a  condensing  tube,  100  feet  long,  and  3 
inches  wide,  cooled  by  cold  water  on  outside.  This  tube 
is  connected  with  air-pumps,  the  latter  having  barrels  11 
inches  wide,  and  a  stroke  13  inches  high  ;  these  lift 
water  and  oil  into  open  casks,  where  they  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  repose  ;  the  stuffing  boxes  are  made 
from  rings  of  cast  steel.  The  operation  is  conducted 
thus  :  the  tar  is  deprived  of  its  sulphur  by  copperas,  and 
then  distilled  till  the  liquid  is  divided  in  2  portions — No. 
1  and  No.  2.  No.  1  is  oil  obtained  from  the  commence- 
ment until  it  reaches  0.870  specific  gravity.  No.  2  is 
that  obtained  from  thence  on,  until  the  process  is  com- 
pleted. 

No.  1  is  mixed  for  4  hours  with  6  per  cent,  of  con- 
centrated oil  of  vitriol ;  ]-  per  cent,  bichromate  potass,  and 
^  per  cent,  of  muriatic  acid. 

No.  2  is  likewise  mixed  for  4  hours  with  8  per  cent, 
of.  oil  vitriol,  £  per  cent,  chromate  potash,  and  1  per  cent, 
of  muriatic  acid  ;  in  two  hours  the  oils  are  drawn  off,  and 
well  washed  with  steam  and  ley.  These  washed  oils  'are 
brought  into  the  reservoir  ;  1,500  quarts  of  No.  1  is  passed 
into  the  apparatus,  and  the  workman  then  admits  steam 
into  the  coil ;  in  20  minutes  a  temperature  of  40°  Cent. 
is  attained,  when  distillation  begins — the  vacuum  is  kept 
at  from  25  to  27  inches — violent  ebullition  or  foaming 
from  the  presence  of  water,  which  only  stops  at  70°  C. 
T  he  workman  looks  through  the  eye-pieces  in  the  vacuum 
to  open  the  air-pipe,  if  the  fluids  should  rise  too  high,  and 
a  little  skill  easily  prevents  any  being  carried  over.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  distillation,  cold  water  is  thrown  into 
the  condensing  fluid  by  the  injecting  pipe,  to  remove  any 
dirt  adhering.  The  first  5  quarts  are  returned  to  the 


122  HUBNER'S  PROCESS. 

reservoir  as  foul  liquid.  The  heat  in  two  hours  is  raised 
to  100°  C.  Then  the  gas  is  lighted,  and  the  apparatus 
is  heated  externally  by  it  ;  at  120°,  the  steam  is  shut  off 
from  the  coil,  and  the  naked  steam  cock  opened,  to  main- 
tain a  continued  motion  in  the  oil ;  this  pipe  is  not  more 
than  ~  inch  wide  ;  distillation  then  proceeds  quietly,  and 
water  is  constantly  thrown  in  to  keep  the  pumps  clean, 
and  the  temperature  is  raised  from  20°  to  25°  per  hour. 
No.  1  is  worked  at  a  temperature  of  130°  to  140°,  and 
No.  2,  180°  to  190°. 

Photogen  distils  over  at'  200°  ;  after  that  the  heavy 
oils  are  produced,  the  distillation  of  which  ceases  at  250°. 
The  residuum  is  paraffine,  which  is  removed  by  a  lift- 
pump  into  the  still.  The  distilled  paraffine  is  placed  in 
a  cellar,  and  crystallized  in  moulds. 

While  the  process  by  the  still  yields  a  profit  of  92  per 
cent.,  that  of  the  vacuum  apparatus  yields  97  to  98  per 
cent.  ;  the  2d  distillation  reduces  the  profit  of  the  still  to 
84  per  cent. 

Dr.  B.  Hubner,  who  has  charge  of  the  coal  oil  manu- 
factory of  Messrs.  Baumeister  &  Co.,  at  Bitterfeld,  gives 
the  following  account  of  the  mode  of  working,  with  obser- 
vations of  his  own  thereon  :  * 

"  Brown  coal,  when  distilled  in  close  vessels,  com- 
mences by  breaking  up  into  small  pieces,  and  leaves  a 
coke  somewhat  resembling  gas-coke,  though  not  so  dense  ; 
it  retains  the  form  of  the  coal,  and  is  used  as  fuel  for  the 
retorts."  The  object  being  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  tar,  he  found  it  essential  that  the  lowest  possi- 
ble temperature  should  be  exhibited,  and  that  the  prod- 
ucts formed  should  be  removed  from  the  retorts  as  quickly 
as  formed  :  this  is  attained  by  using  condensing  tubes 

*  Dingier  Polytechnisches  Journal,  Band  CXLVI.,  p.  211.     1857. 


HUBNER'S  PROCESS.  123 

not  too  narrow,  and  by  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  the 
use  of  an  hydraulic  vessel  or  main,  and  by  a  proper  con- 
struction of  condensers.  He  describes  his  process  as  fol- 
lows :  "  I  use  cast  iron  elliptical  retorts,  8  feet  long,  27 
inches  wide,  and  10  inches  high  ;  these  have  this  advan- 
tage over  ^  shaped  retorts  ;  they  are  removable  when 
they  happen  to  get  burned  ;  the  eduction  is  at  the  back, 
the  tube  for  which  is  at  the  upper  part  of  the  retort,  and 
has  this  shape  (o)  where  it  leaves  the  retort,  so  as  to 
create  a  large  passage,  and  should  be  6J  inches  wide,  at  a 
distance  of  3|  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  retort.  The 
tube  has  an  elbow  on  it,  and  has  a  man-hole  in  it  at  the 
angle,  covered  with  a  screw  cap. 

"  Two  retorts  lie  over  one  fire,  with  an  arched  lattice 
floor  between  the  retorts  and  the  fire  :  the  upper  part  of 
the  retorts  are  protected  by  a  layer  of  ashes,  and  they 
(retorts)  are  so  set  in  the  furnace  as  to  be  easily  put  in 
and  taken  out." 

In  Saxony,  the  distillation  is  carried  on  for  many  days 
together,  by  placing  several  retorts  with  the  fire  playing 
across  them,  and  escaping  at  the  last  one ;  and  in  its 
course,  it  plays  on  the  bottom  of  one,  and  on  the  top  of  the 
next,  and  so  on.  Low  square  boxes  are  the  shapes  of  the 
retorts,  which  are  filled  with  coal,  so  thatvthe  coal  can  be 
heated  both  above  and  below  ;  the  lower  retort  is  heated 
and  distilled  first.  This  plan  is  adopted  to  save  fuel,  and 
to  obtain  the  largest  amount  of  matter  worked  in  the 
shortest  time. 

Hubner  found  his  own  process  to  be  better  than  this 
Saxon  one,  as  regards  quantity  and  quality. 

There  are  many  defects  in  several-day  systems  ;  the 
process  of  carbonization  should  be  carried  on  at  low  tem- 
peratures ;  the  lower  retorts  will  always  be  overheated, 


124  HUBNER'S  PROCESS. 

while  the  upper  one  will  not  be  exhausted  :  the  gradua- 
tion of  the  heat  is  very  unequal. 

When  two  retorts  only  are  employed,  Hubner  recom- 
mends that  their  dimensions  be  increased  above  that  given 
by  him  ;  and  care  should  be  taken  that  carbonization  goes 
on  all  round  the  retort,  from  the  periphery  to  the  centre. 
The  coal  becomes  soon  agglutinated  by  the  heat,  and  di- 
minishes considerably  in  volume  ;  when  the  retort  becomes 
heated  to  redness,  the  volatile  vapors  are  decomposed,  and 
naphthaline  is  produced,  with  a  corresponding  diminution 
of  paraffine  and  the  lighter  oils. 

Each  of  the  retorts  first-mentioned  are  filled  with  3 
bushels  (Prussian)  of  coal,  which,  when  dry,  weighs  280 
Ibs.  (Prussian)  ;  this  forms  a  stratum  3  to  4  inches  in 
depth  of  the  retort,  and  a  free  space  is  thus  left  for  the 
escape  of  the  vapors,  only  small  portions  of  which  come 
into  contact  with  the  highly-heated  portions  of  the  retort, 
which  never  quite  attain  a  red-heat  ;  the  period  which 
elapses  before  perfect  carbonization  takes  place,  varies 
from  8  to  10  hours.  Fifty  of  such  retorts  at  work  can 
use  up,  in  24  hours,  from  360  to  450  bushels,  or  from 
30,000  Ibs.  to  37,500  Ibs.  of  coal.  '  Slack  or  fine  coal  takes 
longer  time  to  distil  than  lump  coal.  It  is  advantageous 
to  make  the  slack  into  lump  before  using  it,  because  the 
heat  then  reaches  all  portions  of  the  coal  more  readily 
through  the^  vacant  spaces  between  the  lumps. 

In  Bitterfeld,  the  lump  coal  is  separated  from  the 
slack  by  screening,  the  slack  being  left  for  fuel.  Hubner 
conducted  a  small  quantity  of  low  pressure  steam  through 
the  retorts,  so  that  the  steam  pipe,  finely  perforated,  being 
laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  retort,  the  steam  passes  through 
the  glowing  coal,  carrying  off  the  products  formed  very 


HUBNEB'S  PROCESS.  125 

rapidly,  and  pure  coal  is  very  readily  distilled  by  it.  He 
does  not  speak  of  the  economy  of  using  steam. 

The  use  of  tubes  for  superheated  steam  is  very  ex- 
pensive, owing  to  the  loss  by  exposure  to  heat,  and  in  a 
new  manufacture  would  not  pay,  especially  in  that  coun- 
try, because  it  is  a  new  manufacture,  where  simplicity  is 
required  in  the  apparatus  used  at  the  outset. 

The  eduction-tubes  enter  a  common  main,  18  inches 
wide,  provided  with  a  man-hole.  The  main  is  kept  cool 
in  water.  Tar  and  water  collect  chiefly  in  this  ;  but 
little  escapes  away  with  the  gases,  which  are  passed 
through  a  series  of  condensers,  consisting  of  one  pipe 
placed  within  another  ;  the  gases  pass  through  the  outer, 
which  is  cooled  by  water,  passing  along  the  inner,  also 
cooled  on  the  inside,  and  deposits  the  tar.  If  the  pipes 
are  sufficiently  long,  wider  tubes  act  most  efficiently,  for 
obvious  reasons.  There  is  a  draught  affixed  at  the  point 
where  the  gases  are  drawn  off,  which  are  used  for  heating 
the  furnaces  and  boiler  ;  the  chimney  takes  the  place  of 
the  aspirator  o.  The  use  of  condensers  and  purifiers  of 
the  gas  is  objectionable,  as  increasing  the  pressure  upon 
the  retorts,  and  preventing  the  ready  escape  of  the  prod- 
ucts when  formed  ;  a  central  iron  vessel  is  placed  in  the 
centre,  and  the  condensers  around  it,  into  which  the  tar 
and  other  products  are  delivered.  The  tar  and  am- 
moniacal  liquor  separate  from  each  other  in  this  ;  by 
suitable  processes,  the  tar  is  drawn  off  clean  and  free 
from  the  water,  ready  for  the  still. 

The  separation  of  tar  from  water  depends  on  the 
relative  gravity  of  the  two  liquids — in  fact,  upon  the 
lightness  of  the  tar,  and  the  thickest  tar  is  generally  the 
lightest. 

The  first  light  oils  come  over  at  ]  00°  Cent.,  with  a 


126  DISTILLATION    OF   LIGNITE. 

small  quantity  of  tarry  water.  When,  the  temperature 
reaches  200°  C.,  there  is  a  momentary  cessation  of  distil- 
lation, and  a  great  commotion  in  the  still.  When  the 
heat  is  again  pushed,  the  paraffine  oils  come  over,  which 
readily  solidify.  Heat  is  continued  until  no  more  fluid 
product  is  obtained.  When  the  bottom  of  the  still 
becomes  red,  heavy  red  and  pungent  vapors  arise,  along 
with  a  yellow  fatty  tenacious  fluid,  containing  naphtha- 
line, which  is  the  constant  companion  of  products  obtained 
at  a  high  temperature  ;  at  this  point,  a  little  water  is 
also  formed  by  oxidation  of  the  hydrogen. 

The  vapors  are  very  injurious  to  the  eyes,  and  should 
be  conducted  off. 

It  is  not  economical  to  distil  the  tarry  liquid  by  over- 
heated steam. 

A  still  holding  1,000  Prussian  quarts,  takes  24  hours 
to  distil  over. 

Tar  oils  from  the  Bitterfeld  coal,  when  treated  with 
soda,  lose  27  per  cent.,  and  the  tar  oils  of  the  Kcepsner 
"3oal,  being  very  hydrogeriated,  lose  1*7  per  cent. 

The  crude  oils  vary  in  gravity,  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  creosote.  The  oils  from  Bitterfeld  range  from 
.890  to  .860,  while  the  Kcepsner  coal  varies  from  .860 
to  .840. 

Dr.  H.  Yohl,  of  Bonn,  who  has  had  much  experience 
in  the  dry  distillation  of  paper  coal,  recommends  a  low 
temperature  at  commencement,  to  be  raised  to  a  red  heat 
at  the  end,  and  that  the  products  be  rapidly  removed  as 
they  are  generated.  The  slate  is  to  be  first  broken  into 
small  pieces  of  uniform  size  (not  larger  than  a  walnut)  ; 
if  not,  they  will  suffer  unequally,  the  larger  pieces  not 
being  decomposed  when  the  small  ones  are  fully  operated 
on  ;  they  will  diminish  the  profit,  and  increase  the  pro- 


DISTILLATION   OF   LIGNITE.  127 

portion  of  gas,  and  produce  less  oil,  because  the  last  por- 
tions in  the  inside  of  the  coal  must  be  decomposed. 

Slate,  in  form  of  slack,  is  equally  prejudicial,  by  not 
allowing  the  escape  of  the  oily  vapors,  owing  to  the  cjose 
packing  of  the  mass,  and  thus  exposes  them  to  too  high  a 
temperature,  producing  olefiant  and  marsh  gases.  . 

The  water  contained  in  slate  has  an  influence  on  the 
yield  of  oil.  Vohl  obtained  from  perfectly  dry  slate,  pro- 
portionally less  light  oil  than  from  slates  only  air-dried, 
still  containing  24  to  25  per  cent,  of  water  ;  this  ratio  is 
that  which  yields  the  largest  amount  of  oil.  The  action 
of  water  on  slate  during  distillation  is  twofold  :  1st,  it 
protects  the  slate  from  too  high  a  degree  of  heat ;  and 
2d,  it  assists  mechanically  in  carrying  off  the  vapors  pro- 
duced. 

Yohl  mentions  that  a  loss  is  produced  by  too  high  a 
heat,  causing  the  paraffine  to  adhere  tenaciously  to  the 
gas.  The  paraffine  may  be  recovered,  by  passing  the  gas 
through  a  barrel  filled  with  forge-scales,  which  separates 
the  solid  matter  ;  this  is  not  very  remunerative,  since  the 
profit  from  this  plan  is  only  0.1  per  cent.,  and  it  is  not 
desirable  to  adopt  it,  since  experience  has  shown  that  the 
danger  of  explosion  arising  from  condensers  is  very  great, 
where  the  method  of  separating  the  last  portions  of  oil 
held  by  the  gas  is  adopted. 

The  Khenish  coals  sometimes  contain  poisonous  metal- 
lic salts  ;  brilliant  crystalline  scales  of  arsenious  acid, 
mixed  with  sulphide  of  arsenic  and  metallic  arsenic,  form; 
at  the  elbow  of  the  escape-pipe  leading  to  the  main  ;  and 
Dr.  Vohl  states  that  the  slates  worked  off  at  the  furnaces 
of-  Eomerickeberge  and  Stupgen,  near  Lintz,  on  the 
Khine,  owned  by  A.  Wiesmann  &  Co.,  contain  a  large 
quantity  of  these  poisonous  products,  and  on  removing 


128  PURIFICATION   OF   OILS. 

the  cap  of  the  retort,  a  strong  smell  of  arsenic,  is  per- 
ceived, and  the  workmen  suffer  from  colic,  ulcers  at  the 
root  of  the  nose,  of  the  joints,  and  an  irritable  condition 
of  the  skin. 

The  coal  oils,  as  at  present  sent  into  the  market,  are 
very  impure  ;  the  demand  is  so  great  and  disproportioned 
to  the  supply,  that  the  manufacturer  has  neither  the  ne- 
cessity nor  the  time  allowed  him  to  redistil  or  otherwise 
purify  his  secondary  products  arising  from  distillation  of 
tar.  When,  however,  from  a  reduced  price  of  animal  oil, 
or  any  other  cause,  the  demand  for  oil  slackens,  then  the 
purification  will  increase  in  proportion.  In  France,  where 
vegetable  oils,  as  rape^  camelina,  and  colza  seeds,  are  ex- 
tensively grown,  the  oils  of  schist,  as  produced  by  Sel- 
ligue  and  others,  are  sold  in  a  state  of  great  purity  ;  and 
in  this  country,  although  the  public,  from  motives  of 
economy,  may  consume  coal  oils,  they  will  never  be  used 
from  choice  or  motives  of  cleanliness,  so  long  as  they  are 
sold  in  their  present  condition. 

The  object  of  purification  is,  to  separate  the  viscous, 
semi-solid,  and  solid  hydro-carbons  which  are  suspended 
in  the  lighter  oils,  and  which,  from  their  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  carbon,  cannot  be  made  to  burn  in 
ordinary  lamps  without  producing  smoke,  and  which  pro- 
duce this  annoyance  even  when  present  in  no  large  amount 
in  the  more  volatile  liquids. 

A  redistillation  of  the  oil,  carefully  conducted,  re- 
moves much  impurity  which  is  retained  in  the  still.  The 
loss  of  light  oil  is,  however,  very  large,  especially  where 
naked  fire  is  used  to  heat  the  still ;  hence,  naked  steam, 
introduced  by  a  coil  perforated  at  the  extremity,  has  been 
adopted  by  E.  Warrington  and  others. 

Steam,  under  a  higher,  but  yet  moderate  pressure,  has 


PURIFICATION  OF   OILS.  129 

also  been  employed,  both  alone"  and  in  conjunction  with 
external  heat,  supplied  by  a  steam-jacket,  or  by  fire. 
The  use  of  steam,  in  any  manner  applied  (except  super- 
heated), is,  cceteris  paribus,  a  more  desirable  mode  of  ex- 
hibiting heat  than  by  naked  fires.  Yet  the  cost  of  fittings, 
boiler,  and  attendance,  may  in  some  situations  be  such, 
that  the  saving  effected  by  steam  would  be  no  economy  ; 
and  in  the  majority  of  coal  oil  factories,  the  naked  fire  is 
applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  iron  still. 

In  addition  to  re-distillation,  the  use  of  chemical 
agents  as  purifiers  is  largely  adopted,  especially  in  Europe. 
Sulphuric  acid,  caustic  soda  solution,  hydrate  of  potass 
and  soda,  and  manganate  or  permanganate  of  potass  and 
nitric  acid,  are  the  substances  most  in  use  :  the  sulphuric 
acid,  the  most  powerful,  unites  with  several  heavy  hydro- 
carbons, and  removes  them  from  the  lighter,  upon  which 
it  has  but  little  action.  The  manganate  of  potass  and 
nitric  acid,  when  used,  oxidizes  several  compounds,  and 
thus  detaches  them  from  the  light  oils,  and  the  soda  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  neutralizing  any  acid  left  in  the 
oils  not  previously  washed  out,  and  also '  dissolves  out  the 
creosote,  or  carbolic  acid. 

The  purification  is  effected  by  chemical  means,  the 
impurities  not  being  capable  of  separation  by  any  means 
of  filtration. 

Mansfield,  in  his  patent  for  obtaining  volatile  products 
from  tar,  describes  the  purification  of  benzule  by  nitric 
acid,  and  nitro-muriatic  acid.  These  acids  are  rarely  now 
employed,  sulphuric  acid  being  cheaper  and  more  ef- 
fective. 

The  general  apparatus  for  purification  does  not  differ 
in  its  essential  particulars  from  that  of  the  purification  of 
gas  :  a  retort  or  still  furnished  with  refrigerating  tubes  to 


130  PURIFICATION    OF    OILS. 

conduct  away  the  distilled  liquids  ;  hydraulic  mains  and 
purifying  boxes  are  the  forms  of  apparatus.  In  the  main, 
the  watery  portions  separate  from  the  oily  and  tarry 
matters,  and  in  the  purifying  boxes,  the  less  permanent 
hydro-carbons  are  broken  up  and  removed. 

G.  Barry,  by  his  process,  patented  Sept.  18,  1855, 
operates  in  this  way.  The  receiver  is  placed  apart  from 
the  retort,  and  connected  by  pipes  which  enter  partly  into 
the  former :  a  condenser  is  provided  with  refrigerating 
tubes,  condensing  the  raw  oils  and  ammoniacal  waters. 
The  purifiers  are  made  of  wooden  cases,  lined  with  lead, 
and  provided  with  agitators.  The  oils  are  placed  in  these 
after  the  thick  tar  has  been  separated,  and  treated  with 
5  per  cent,  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid.  Agitation  goes 
on  for  3  hours  ;  the  liquid  is  left  to  settle  for  3  hours, 
drawn  off  into  a  second  purifier,  placed  under  the  first, 
when  5  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  caustic  soda,  or  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  lime-water  is  added,  and  the  whole  is 
well  stirred  for  several  hours,  and  then  allowed  to  setMe. 

After  the  above  process,  they  are  redistilled  in  the 
same  manner  as  molasses  or  rum  ;  after  the  distillation, 
the  thick  liquid  tar  which  remains  in  the  cucurbit,  may 
be  converted  into  a  black  grease  by  mixing  it  wijbh  caustic 
soda  ;  when  well  stirred,  and  kept  at  75°  to  85°  F.  for 
two  or  three  hours,  saponification  sets  in,  and  the  matter 
being  run  into  suitable  receivers,  forms  the  paraffinized 
grease. 

The  distillation  of  raw  oils  is  conducted  in  a  cucurbit, 
placed  over  the  furnace  ;  it  has  a  man-hole  for  cleansing 
it,  and  communicates  by  a  pipe  with  a  coil,  from  which 
the  products  of  distillation  are  discharged  into  the  receiver. 
The  patentee  states  that  the  temperature,  while  distilla- 
tion is  going  on,  should  not  exceed  from  400°  to  600°  F. 


PURIFICATION    OF    OILS,  131 

Hiram  Hyde,  in  his  English  patent,  dated  Nov.  24, 
1855,  describes  a  method  of  obtaining  volatile  oils  from 
petroline,  or  semi-fluid  bitumens,  which  consists  in  the 
rapid  application  of  temperature,  beginning  about  650°, 
and  passing  up  to  800°.  What  is  volatilized  below  600°, 
he  rejects,  as  containing  too  little  paraffine  ;  that  between 
the  two  temperatures  is  a  brown  crude  oil.  This  is 
placed  in  a  leaden  vessel,  and  churned  with  sulphuric 
acid  for  two  hours  at  90°  F.  The  oil  is  then  drawn  off, 
and  agitated  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  at  30°  Baume, 
for  three  hours  ;  a  strong  solution  of  manganite  or  per- 
manganite  of  potass  is  then  mixed  with  the  oil,  agitated 
for  an  hour,  and  left  to  repose.  The  oil  is  then  distilled 
with  caustic  soda,  up  to  850°,  when  the  distillate  begins 
to  assume  a  brown  hue  ;  the  distilled  oil  is  washed  with 
soda  solution  and  jets  of  steam.  By  this  means,  oils 
having  a  boiling  point  of  600°  may  be  obtained.  This 
product  is  a  mixture  of  hydro-carbons,  and  is  perhaps 
allied  to  the  coup-oil  described  as  produced  by  the  patent- 
ed process  of  Ross. 

Schauffele's  mode  of  purifying  benzule  so  as  to  be 
unaffected  by  air  or  light,  remaining  always  colorless,  is, 
to  shake  1  litre  of  the  crude  benzule  with  100  grammes 
of  ordinary  sulphuric  acid  ;  allow  it  to  settle  for  two  or 
three  hours  ;  decant  the  benzule,  and  shake  it  anew  with 
another  100  grammes  of  sulphuric  acid ;  as  soon  as  the 
separation  of  the  two  liquids  occurs,  the  thick  colored 
benzule  stratum  is  decanted  off  as  it  floats  on  the  acid, 
and  is  shaken  with  40  to  50  grammes  of  dry  potash. 
Sulphate  of  potash  is  formed,  and  the  benzule  becomes 
colorless  ;  it  is  tested,  to  prove  neutrality,  and  filtered 
through  paper. 

In  Broomanjs  English  patent  for  the  distillation  of 


132  PURIFICATION    OF   OILS. 

coal-oil,  dated  Feb.  28,  1856,  being  a  communication  from 
France,  retorts  and  receivers  (of  common  kind)  are  used  for 
obtaining  crude  oil,  pipes  leading  from  the  retorts  direct 
into  the  receiver.  A  cucurbit,  placed  over  a  furnace,  is  used 
for  distilling  the  raw  materials.  The  heat  for  distillation,  it 
is  stated,  must  not  exceed  300°  C.,  (572°  F.)  The  raw  oil 
is  distilled  by  a  primary  distillation,  to  get  rid  of  the  tar. 
The  oil  is  brought  into  contact  with  5  per  cent,  of  oil  of 
vitriol,  with  agitation  for  three  or  more  hours ;  then  left 
to  settle  and  draw  off  into  a  new  purifier  ;  it  is  then 
treated  with  5  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda,  or  an  equivalent 
of  lime-water. 

The  distilled  oil  yields  a  light  essential  oil  (1),  whose 
density  at  first  is  70°  of  Gay  Lussac's  Areometer.  Distil- 
lation is  carried  on  until  the  liquid  has  a  density  of  50°, 
The  first  results  being  light,  should  be  collected  separately. 
With  careful  distillation,  the  next  batch  (2)  is  collected, 
until  it  attains  a  density  of  32°  Areometer  ;  this  oil  may 
be  used  for  lighting.  The  heat  must  be  increased  for 
further  distillation,  when  the  distilled  product  (3)  will  be 
the  lubricating  greasy  material. 

.  The  residue  in  the  cucurbit  is  a  tarry  matter.  The 
paraffine  may  be  separated  from  2  by  cold  (10°  to  20°  C.) 
which  may  be  obtained  by  a  mixture  of  ice  and  sulphate 
of  soda. 

Mr.  Bancroft,  of  Liverpool,  patented  a  process  for  ob- 
taining volatile  products  from  distillation  of  bitumen  or 
earth-oil,  found  in  Burmah,  which  consisted  in  passing 
high-pressure  steam  through  a  still  in  which  the  petroleum 
was  placed,  the  pressure  being  50  to  60  Ibs.  to  the  square 
inch  ;  a  fire  is  placed  beneath  the  still  until  jth  of  the 
original  quantity  is  distilled  over,  which  is  eupion  nearly 
pure  ;  this  distillate  is  removed,  the  fire  urged,  and  steam 


AREA   OF    PRODUCTION.  133 

supplied  until  the  remaining  95  parts,  or  nearly  so,  have 
come  over,  which  is  eupion  combined  with  hydro-carbons, 
holding  paraffine  in  solution  :  at  the  close,  paraffine  and 
pyrole  come  over  largely  ;  the  condensing  pipes  must  be 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  90°  F..  rising  to  120°  at  the 
close  of  the  distillation  :  the  residuum  in  the  still  contains 
a  large  amount  of  paraffine,  which  may  be  obtained  by 
distilling  in  an  iron  retort  at  a  low  red  heat. 

Barry,  in  his  patent  for  decomposing  schistose  mate- 
rials, says  the  heat  for  the  production  of  oils  should  never 
exceed  400°  to  600°  F. 

The  area  of  manufacture  of  coal-oils  is  limited,  being 
chiefly  confined  to  the  districts  where  cannel  coal  can  be 
mined  with  economy  ;  hence,  the  States  of  Kentucky, 
Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  '  Ohio,  and  Illinois,  include  at 
present  all  the  great  centres  of  manufacture.  Factories 
will  shortly  be  established  in  Missouri,  and  in  every  other 
State  where  this  highly  bituminous  coal  can  be  obtained. 
The  State  of  New  York  is  the  only  exception  to  the  fore- 
going, the  manufacture  there  being  carried  on  at  the  sea- 
board, where  the  crude  minerar  (Boghead  coal)  can  be 
most  cheaply  delivered.  As  it  is  established  at  the  largest 
market  in  the  U.  S.,  what  is  overpaid  by  the  use  of  a 
costly  raw  material,  is  balanced  by  the  reduction  of  cost 
of  transportation  of  the  refined  oil.  The  following  brief 
and  necessarily  imperfect  notice  of  the  localities  of  manu- 
facture in  this  country,  contains  as  complete  a  list  as  the 
author  could  obtain  information  about : — 

PENNSYLVANIA.— At  Darlington  Village,  Beaver  Co.,  there  exists 
one  manufactory  of  considerable  capacity,  and  three  in  which  the  works 
are  on  a  small  scale. 

At  Darlington  Station,  or  New  Galilee,  two  miles  from  the  village, 
are  the  works  of  the  New  York  Coal  Oil  Co.  This  Company  rectifies 
the  crude  oil.  A  second  manufactory  is  being  raised  in  this  vicinity. 


134  LOCALITIES   OF   MANUFACTURE. 

One  and  a  half  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Kiskiminetas  River, 
on  the  Alieghany  River,  in  Armstrong  Co.,  the  works  of  Brereton, 
Williams  &  Co.  are  being  erected.  The  revolving  retorts  of  Alter  & 
Hill  are  introduced.  Five  retorts  are  to  be  set  up. 

Near  Freeport,  in  Alleghany  township,  Armstrong  Co.,  on  the  Al- 
leghany  River,  are  the  works  of  the  North  American  Coal  &  Oil  Co. 
The  works  have  been  in  operation  since  July,  1858.  Eight  of  Alter  & 
Hill's  retorts  are  in  operation,  4  large  and  4  small.  The  small  ones 
are  6  feet  long  and  4  feet  in  diameter,  the  large  retorts  8  feet  long  and 
6  feet  in  diameter.  Capital  invested,  $70,000. 

The  Lucesco  Oil  Co.  commenced  operations  about  the  first  of  April.* 

At  Rochester  is  a  factory  where  both  the  making  crude  oil  and  re- 
fining are  carried  on. 

At  Chester,  near  Philadelphia,  is  an  establishment  for  refining  the 
crude  oil,  being  supplied  from  the  western  part  of  the  State  in  which 
comparatively  little  in  the  way  of  refining  is  done. 

At  Pittsburg  there  is  one  establishment. 

OHIO. — East  Palestine,  Columbiana  Co.,  has  a  large  factory  for 
crude  oil. 

At  Canfield,  Mahoning  Co.,  there  are  two  large  establishments, 
both  distilling  crude  oil,  and  refining.  A  third  factory  is  in  process 
of  erection. 

Close  by  Steubenville,  one  medium-sized  factory  exists,  and  another 
is  being  built. 

At  Newark  are  three  manufactories  of  crude  oil. 

In  Cochocton  Co.,  one  manufactory  is  in  operation,  and  six  others 
nearly  ready  for  working. 

VIRGINIA. — In  Franklin  Co.,  near  the  Kanawha  River,  the  Union 
Oil  Co.,  of  Maysville,  Ky.,  have  their  factory  for  manufacturing  crude 
oil ;  refining  is  conducted  at  Maysville.  800  gallons  of  crude  oil  pei*  • 
day  is  at  present  produced  here,  but  when  all  the  retorts  now  being 
erected  are  completed,  there  will  be  a  capability  of  educting  3.200  gal- 

*  The  Lucesco  Works,  in  Westmoreland  Co.,  are  probably  the  largest 
works  at  present  in  operation  in  the  country.  The  capital  invested  is  $120,- 
000.  There  are  now  in  working  order,  ten  large  revolving  retorts  placed 
over  as  many  furnaces,  each  retort  having  a  capacity  of  2£  tons.  The  min- 
eral is  distilled  for  24  hours.  The  crude  oil  is  rectified  at  the  works  in  stills 
having  a  capacity  of  2,000  gallons,  each  armed  with  agitators,  and  heated  by 
naked  fire  ;  16  of  these  stills  are  erected.  The  amount  of  crude  oil  produced 
is  almost  6,000  gallons  per  diem. 


LOCALITIES    OF    MANUFACTURE.  135 

Ions  per  diem.     At  the  same  locality,  within  five  miles  of  the  river 
another  factory  has  been  started,  upon  a  capital  of  $30,000. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Wheeling,  some  large  works  are  being  erected ; 
and  on  Big  Sandy  River  some  crude  distillation  is  carried  on  on  a  mod- 
erate scale. 

KENTUCKY. — The  Breckenridge  Coal  Oil  Co.  have  their  extensive 
works  at  Cloverport,  Ky.,  where  6,000  gallons  per  week  (May,  1858,) 
of  crude  oil  are  distilled.  The  coal  has  already  been  described ;  it 
yields,  according  to  Dr.  Peters,  for  every  100  Ibs.,  32  Ibs.  of  crude  oil. 

In  Owsley  Co.,  the  coal  known  as  "Haddock's  Cannel  Coal"  is 
extensively  manufactured,  and  yields  55  to  60  gallons  of  crude  oil  to 
the  ton. 

NEW  YORK. — At  Brooklyn,  on  Flushing  river,  is  located  the  New 
York  Kerosene  Oil  Co.'s  works ;  both  the  refining  and  distilling  crude 
oils  are  carried  out  here.  The  crude  oil  is  distilled  from  Boghead 
mineral  (coal,)  solely  in  towers  or  pipes,  as  patented  by  Luther  At' 
wood  in  1858.  Those  in  operation  at  present  hold  25  tons  of  coal,  and 
are  lighted  by  anthracite  coal,  assisted  by  pine  wood  at  the  commence- 
ment. The  Company  are  erecting  larger  retorts  than  those  now  in 
use,  being  intended  to  contain  100  tons  of  coal.  The  daily  produce  of 
crude  oil  is  1000  gallons. 

On  the  above-mentioned  stream,  at  its  mouth,  is  the  factory  of  the 
Columbia  Coal  Oil  Co.,  who  heretofore  have  manufactured  crude  oil 
from  the  Asphalte  (or  coal)  of  New  Brunswick  (the  Albert  mineral)  ; 
more  lately,  however,  their  attention  is  almost  solely  devoted  to  the 
refining  the  crude  oils  received  from  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  a  third  establishment  is  now  at  work  in  East 
Brooklyn.* 

*  The  foregoing  list  of  localities  is  perhaps  imperfect :  it  is  the  fullest  the 
author  could  obtain. 


APPENDIX   TO   CHAPTER   II. 

DURING  the  years  1858  and  1859  extensive  borings  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  petroleum  or  rock  oil  have  been  made  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  In  the  former  State  the  most  extensive 
and  successful  sinkings  have  been  made  between  the  Alleghany 
river  and  the  western  limit  of  the  State  ;  along  that  river  native 
springs  of  petroleum  have  existed  which,  oozing  through  the  su- 
perficial clay,  have  formed  a  tenacious,  pasty  mass.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  these  springs  the  artificial  wells  have  been  made  by  sink- 
ing a  bore  deep  enough  to  reach  the  thin  layer  of  bitumen  flowing 
between  the  strata.  The  region  now  examined  may  be  defined  as 
commencing  a  short  distance  above  Pittsburg,  on  the  Alleghany 
river,  n  Alleghany  Co.,  along  the  western  limit  of  the  State ; 
thence  east  along  the  New  York  State  line  to  the  east  limit  of 
McKean  Co. ;  thence  S.  W.  to  the  Alleghany  river,  where  the 
Conemaugh  river  joins  it.  The  chief  localities  are  along  Maho- 
ning  creek,  in  Armstrong  Co. ;  along  the  Clarion  river,  in  Clarion 
Co.  ;  on  Oil  creek,  in  Titus,  Crawford,  and  Warren  Cos. ;  at  Ti- 
dionte,  in  Warren,  near  the  Alleghany  river ;  along  French  creek, 
in  Crawford,  to  Causewago  valley. 

As  the  whole  of  this  region  is  underlaid- by  what  is  known  to 
geologists  as  the  coal  measures,  the  petroleum  is  derived  from  the 
natural  separation  of  the  bitumen  from  the  carbonaceous  portion 
of  the  coal,  which,  oozing  upward  from  faults  or  fissures  in  the 
coal  seam,  drains  off"  between  the  strata,  and  follows  the  inclination 
of  the  latter  until  it  reaches  the  surface  in  some  denuded  portion 


APPENDIX.  137 

• 

of  the  coal  bed.  This  gradual  oozing  over  extensive  surfaces 
yields  a  large  supply  of  liquid,  from  which  those  who  sink  wells 
deep  enough  to  reach  a  thick  stratum  of  petroleum  may  expect  to 
have  an  abundant  and  constant  yield,  but  it  is  perhaps  unneces- 
sary to  contradict  the  popular  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  subter- 
ranean lake  from  which  these  supplies  are  drawn ;  such  an  opinion 
only  could  arise  from  an  ignorance  of  the  origin  of  the  petroleum 
itself.  It  may  be  stated  Jhat  rock  oil  may  be  expected  to  be  found 
in  situations  where  the  bituminous  coal  seams  are  much  disturbed 
by  fractures  and  dislocations.  Where  a  seam  is  unbroken  no  pe- 
troleum can  escape.  The  petroleum  region,  therefore,  may  be 
expected  wherever  coal  seams  are  inclined  or  tilted  at  a  higher 
angle  than  that  at  which  deposition  occurred  ;  yet  a  petroleum 
spring  may  not  be  expected  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania coal  beds,  as  they  have  not  only  been  contorted,  but  so 
altered  by  subterranean  heat  as  to  have  lost  most,  and  in  some 
parts  all,  of  their  bitumen. 

The  special  localities  in  Pennsylvania  where  petroleum  is 
sought  for,  are  : 

On  Oil  creek,  2£  miles  from  its  mouth,  Messrs.  McClintock 
have  a  well  bored  in  the  fissure  of  a  rock,  from  which  for  many 
years  was  collected  about  15  gallons  of  oil  per  diem.  The  well 
is  40  feet  deep.  An  engine  and  pump  are  being  erected.  Near 
this  locality  Messrs.  Crawfords  have  commenced  sinking. 

At  Titusville,  Crawford  Co.,  about  1£  mile  below  the  turn,  is 
the  well  of  Messrs.  Drake  &  Co.,  the  Pioneer  well.  From  10  to 
25  bbls.  per  day  are  pumped.  Bore,  4^  inches  in  diameter, 
through  29  feet  of  earth  and  40  feet  of  rock — total,  69  feet.  A 
surface  spring  formerly  existed  here,  in  which  the  oil  and  water 
rose  up  through  a  coarse  gravel,  and  yielded  about  12  to  15  gal- 
lons per  diem.  The  history  of  the  Pioneer  well  is  as  follows  : 

The  Pennsylvania  Rock  Oil  Co.  purchased  the  petroleum 
spring  cf  Brewer,  William  &  Co.,  and  leased  it  in  1858  to  Mr. 
E.  L.  Drake,  with  the  understanding  that  he  should  gather  the 
oil  at  his  own  expense  and  pay  12  cents  per  gallon  for  it.  In 
May,  1859,  Mr.  D.  commenced  boring,  and  after  sinking  a  shaft 
71  feet,  a  fissure  or  fault  was  struck,  from  which  the  oil  oozed 
readily. 

Within  a  mile  of  the  town,  on  bottom  land,  about  a  quarter 


138  APPENDIX. 

•*r 

mile  from  Oil  creek,  Messrs.  Barnsdale  &  Co.  have  sunk  a  4 
inch  bore  through  29  feet  of  earth  and  41  feet  of  rock — total, 
70  feet :  a  considerable  supply  is  promised  here. 

Within  30  rods  of  the  preceding  is  the  well  of  Messrs.  Wil- 
liams &  Co.  The  boring  was  conducted  in  clay  for  the  first  96 
feet,  when  rock  was  reached  :  a  5  inch  cast-iron  tube  was  sunk. 
The  following  statement  gives  the  total  depth  and  character  of 
the  rock  bored : 


Distance 

One  foot  muck, 1 

Five  feet  blue  clay, 0 

Forty-three  feet  mixed  gravel,    ....  49 
One  foot  blue  clay  and  sand,           ...         .50 

Six  feet  sand,  clay,  and  shales,    ....  56 

Twenty-six  feet  fire  clay,  striking  nodules  at  bottom,  82 

Four  feet  sand,  gravel,  and  pebbles,        ...  86 

Nine  feet  gravel  and  fine  sand,             ...  95 

One  foot  fine  gray  sandstone,           ....  96 

Three  feet  of  shale  rock,  striking  seam  of  gas,     .  99 

One  foot  soap  rock,  with  water  and  oil,            .         .  100 

Four  feet  soap  rock,  with  oil  more  and  more  plenty,  104 
Eleven  feet  soft  blue  shale,  with  additional  supply 

of  oil, 115 


One  mile  below  McClintock's,  Messrs.  Ewing  &  Shugert  are 
boring  with  an  engine — have  reached  30  feet.  In  this  neighbor- 
hood W.  Stewart  &  Co.  are  also  sinking. 

Eleven  miles  below  Titusville,  Messrs.  Kellogg  &  Co.  have 
sunk  a  well  90  feet,  with  a  4^  inch  bore.  Two  barrels  per  day 
are  obtained.  They  propose  to  sink  deeper. 

In  this  vicinity,  Aleen,  Chase  &  Co.  and  Brown,  Mithel  & 
Co.  are  sinking. 

Two  miles  above  Titusville  is  the  well  of  the  Kerrs.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  town,  Moore,  Chase  &  Co.  have  sunk  130  feet, 
and  reached  a  rich  layer  of  oil.  Three-fourths  of  a  mile  below 
Moore's  is  the  well  o.f  Mead,  Rouse  &  Co.,  96  feet  deep,  and  close 
by,  that  of  Williams,  Tanner  &  Co.,  110  feet  deep.  Brine  is 
pumped  up  in  the  last  well. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  creek  are  the  wells  of  Donaly, 


APPENDIX.  139 

•       x 

Kier  &  Co.,  and  of  Allen  &  Johnston.  The  latter  have  found 
oil  at  130  feet* 

One-fourth  mile  below  the  Pioneer  well  is  that  of  Crossley, 
Sloan  &  Co.,  108  feet  deep ;  and  on  the  hill  opposite,  Ullman  & 
Co.  sunk  a  considerable  depth,  but  were  prevented  proceeding  by 
the  leakage  of  gas. 

One  mile  below  Crossley's,  Fletcher,  Stockspole  &  Co.  have 
reached  an  abundant  oil  supply  at  90  feet.  Around  this  vicinity 
are  many  borings  as  yet  uncompleted. 

At  Tidionte,  Warren  Co.,  Messrs.  Dennis  &  Co.  are  boring, 
about  1|  miles  from  the  town  and  the  Alleghany  river,  on  Gor- 
don's run  ;  bore  2£  inch,  and  63  feet  down  in  rock,  which  is  within 
3  feet  of  the  surface.  About  1  gallon  per  day  is  collected.  At 
the  mouth  of  this  run,  Messrs.  King  &  Co.  have  sunk  a  well  6 
feet  diameter  to  17  feet  deep,  where  rock  is  reached.  The  oil 
collected,  about  3  gallons  per  day. 

Near  Tidionte,  the  Lennine  Exploring  Co.  are  sinking  five 
wells,  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  17  to  63  feet  deep.  Traces 
of  oil  are  found  in  two  of  them. 

At  Tarentum,  Alleghany  Co.,  are  three  borings,  made  origi- 
nally for  brine,  and  still  yielding  salt  water.  The  oil  comes  up  with 
the  brine,  and  separates  completely  by  subsidence,  and  communi- 
cates no  flavor  to  the  salt.  The  borings  are  450  feet  deep,  the 
brine  coming  from  the  lowest  point,' and  the  oil  from  about  350 
feet,  or  100  feet  above  the  brine  spring.  Of  the  three  wells,  that 
of  Peterson  &  Co.  yields  about  10  bbls.  in  24  hours ;  Kier's 
about  3  bbls., ;  and  Peterson  Sen.'s,  about  1  bbl.  per  24  hours. 
The  first-named  well  yielded  brine  for  20  years  without  a  trace 
of  oil,  when  the  diameter  was  increased  from  3  inches  to  4 ;  it 
then  began  to  yield  oil  in  the  amount  of  3  bbls.  for  24  hours. 
From  time  to  time  the  diameter  of  the  bore  was  increased,  the 
supply  of  oil  increasing  until  the  diameter  reached  seven  inches, 
its  present  size,  with  the  yield  above  given.  Many  of  the  old 
salt  wells  about  Tarentum  are  now  being  deepened  with  the  hope 
of  obtaining  oil  from  them. 

At  Tarentum,  L.  Peterson  &  Co.  are  sinking  a  shaft  4J  feet 

*  For  some  of  the  information  received,  we  are  indebted  to  the  Com- 
mercial Gazette,  of  Titusville.  / 


140  APPENDIX. 

« 

by  8,  which  they  propose  to  reach  400  feet  in  depth,  so  as  to  cut 
through  on  a  large  scale  the  oil-bearing  stratum.  Not  more  than 
50  feet  is  at  present  sunk. 

At  Franklin,  Venango  Co.,  the  Franklin  Co.  have  bored  40 
feet  through  rock,  having  commenced  at  the  bottom  of  an  aban- 
doned well.  The  total  depth  is  60  feet,  with  a  6  inch  bore ;  this 
is  situate  about  20  rods  from  French  creek.  Two  miles  below 
Franklin,  Stewart  &  Co.  have  reached  90  feet  with  a  4  inch  bore, 
and  obtained  oil.  Two  miles  above  Franklin,  on  the  Alleghany 
river,  Messrs.  Fulton  &  Co.  are  sinking.  At  the  mouth  of  Oil 
creek,  Messrs.  Arnold  &  Co.  have  sunk  325  feet,  and  obtained 
oil.  About  a  mile  from  this,  on  the  east  bank  of  Alleghany  river, 
a  company  have  sunk  60  feet  in  rock,  but  have  not  yet  reached  oil. 

Oil  has  been  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  Deer 
creek,  on  the  Clarion  river,  on  the  Packer  property,  now  in  pos- 
session of  Mr.  Whitehill.  Oil  has  been  found  on  the  Clarion,  be- 
tween the  old  bridge  and  Russell's  mill,  and  near  Shippenville 
springs  have  also  been  discovered,  rendering  the  excitement  in- 
tense. The  McCormick  well  yields  about  a  gallon  of  oil  each 
minute.  The  sum  of  $400,000  has  been  offered  for  the  property. 


SYNOPTICAL    KESUME 


PATENTED  IMPROVEMENTS  HAVING   EEFEEENCE  TO   THE  DISTILL  A- 
TION  OP  OILS  FEOM  COALS,  BITUMENS,  AND  SCHISTS.  ' 


I.    AMERICAN    PATENTS. 


1852.  March  23. — JAS.  YOUNG.     Improvement  in  making  Paraf- 
fine  Oil;  (English  patent  dated  Oct.  7th,  1850;)  claims  "  obtaining 
paraffine  oil,  or  an  oil  containing  paraffine,  and  paraffine  from  bitumin- 
ous coals,  by  treating  them  in  the  manner  heretofore  described  ;  "  dis- 
tils the  coal  at  a  low  red  heat ;  treats  distillate  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
soda  solution,  redistils,  and  repurifies,  and  distils  a  third  time. 

1853.  March  29. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.     Process  of  preparing  Para- 
naphthaline  Oil  from  the  distillate  of  Coal  Tar  ;  collecting  the  products 
at  certain  fixed  temperatures  ;  calls  the  product  "  Coup-Oil." 

1853.  September  27.— WM.  BROWN.     Preparing  Paraffine  Oil, 
Lubricating  Oil,  and  Eupion,  from  Coal  or  other  bituminous  matter ; 
claims  the  use  of  super-heated  steam,  as  specified,  for  separating  the 
products  ;  also  claims  the  modes  of  separating  Eupion,  Paraffine,  and 
Lubricating^  Oil  from  each  other. 

1854.  June  27. — ABM.  GESNER.     Production  of  Kerosene  Oils 
from  Maltha  and  other  bituminous  substances,  by  subjecting  them  to 
dry  distillation,  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  800°  F.     The  liquid  distillate 
divides  into  3  strata.     The  upper  stratum  is  drawn  oif  and  redistilled ; 
this  2d  distilled  is  purified  and  distilled  to  produce  Kerosene  A :  analo- 
gous liquids,  obtained  by  similar  treatment  with  varying  temperatures, 
yield  Kerosene  B  and  C.     Claims  the  liquid  Kerosene. 

1855.  March  27. — ABM.  GESNER.    Improvement  in  processes  for 
making  Kerosene,  by  dry  distillation,  at  the  lowest  temperature  at 
which  Kerosene  will  volatilize.     The  fluid  is  obtained  by  processes 
similar  to  those  described  in  the  foregoing  description  ;  claims  obtain- 
ing Kerosene  from  bituminous  substances,  by  subjecting  any  of  them 
to  dry  distillation,  rectifying  the  distillate  by  treating  it  with  acid  and 
freshly-calcined  lime,  and  then  submitting  it  -to  re-distillation,  as  set 
forth. 


142  AMERICAN   PATENTS. 

1856.  August  12. — L.  &  W.  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  produc- 
tion of  oil  from  Cannel  Coal,  so  as  to  form  a  lubricating  oil,  consisting 
of  Paraffine  dissolved  in  Eupion,  or  light  oils  obtained  in  the  first 
distillation.  This  oil  boils  at  600°  F.,  is  fluid  at  32°  F.,  and  of  a 
density  of  .864  at  60°  ;  claims  the  oil  produced  having  the  properties 
set  forth. 

1856.  August  12.— L.  &  W.  ATWOOD.  Trinidad  Pitch,  or  Bar- 
badoes  Tar  is  distilled,  and  the  product  is  again  distilled :  this  distil- 
late is  purified  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterward  caustic  soda,  and 
finally  by  permanganite  of  potass,  or  soda ;  the  fluid  is  then  finally 
distilled.  This  fluid  boils  at  600°  F.,  is  fluid  at  32°  F.,  and  has  a 
density  of  .900.  Claims  the  manufacture  and  use  of  the  oil  described. 

1856.  September  2. — CUMMIXGS  CHERRY.  Improvement  in  ap- 
paratus for  purifying  oil  obtained  from  Mineral  coal.  The  crude  oil  is 
distilled  in  a  horizontal  retort  furnished  with  copper  heads  and  receiver, 
into  which  the  distillate  rises,  whence  it  is  driven  into  the  rectifying 
chamber,  furnished  with  trays,  on  which  is  placed  a  stratum  of  un- 
slacked  lime ;  the  vapors  are  then  passed  into  a  condenser  and  cistern, 
in  which  muriatic  acid  diluted  is  made  to  act  on  the  liquid  by  means 
of  agitation ;  after  repose  and  decantation,  the  fluid  is  subjected  to 
milk  of  lime.  The  oil  is  then  drawn  off  and  pumped  into  a  boiler, 
where  it  is  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  steam.  Claims  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  retort,  combined  with  the  copper  heads,  the  rectifying 
chamber,  the  steam  conduits,  and  the  agitating  apparatus. 

1856.  September  2. — CUMMINGS  CHERRY.  Improvement  in  ap- 
paratus for  distilling  crude  oil  from  Mineral  coal.  The  coal  is  fed  into 
an  upright  retort,  having  a  closed  top,  and  open  at  the  lower  extrem- 
ity, surrounded  on  inside  with  fire-tiles ;  the  bottom  of  the  retort  is 
immersed  in  water.  An  agitator,  or  stirring  rod,  with  small  lateral 
projections  attached,  is  fixed  vertically  in  the  retort,  to  keep  the  mate- 
rials at  a  uniform  temperature.  Claims  providing  upright  retorts  with 
a  closed  top,  and  opening  at  the  bottom,  to '  be  immersed  in  water,  as 
set  forth. 

1856.  September  2. — CUMMINGS  CHERRY.  Improvement  in  the 
preparation  of  drying  oil  from  oils  extracted  from  bituminous  minerals. 
The  purified  oil  is  boiled  with  litharge  and  common  resin.  Claims 
preparing  the  oil  as  set  forth. 

1856.  December  16. — RICHARD  SCHRODER.  Improvement  in  ap- 
paratus for  Coal-Oil.  The  coal  is  distilled  in  small  upright  retorts 
of  fire-clay,  closed  at  top,  and  set  in  a  furnace  so  as  to  be  surrounded 
with  flame  and  fire,  with  pipes  leading  from  it  at  different  heights,  so 
that  the  oils  may  be  separated  from  each  other  while  distilling,  and 
not  require  subsequent  rectification.  Claims,  constructing  the  retort 
or  generator  with  openings  of  different  heights,  as  shown,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  oil  of  different  qualities,  as  set  forth. 

1858.  April  27. — DAVID  ALTER  and  S.  A.  HILL.  Re-issued 
February  8,  1859.  Improvement  in  retorts  for  obtaining  volatile 
liquids  by  dry  distillation  of  Shale,  &c. ;  distils  the  coal,  &c.,  in  a  cy- 
lindrical retort  of  cast  iron  or  other  metal,  which  rotates  on  an  axle 
prolonged  at  each  end ;  to  the  front  extremity  is  attached  the  wheel- 
work  needed  to  produce  revolution;  the  axle  at  the  back  of  the 


AMERICAN    PATENTS.  143 


retort  is  hollow,  allowing  the  liquids  and  gas  to  escape  into  the  con 
denser. 

1858.  June  15. — T.  D.  SARGENT.  Improvement  in  Revolving 
Retorts  for  distillation  of  volatile  oils  from  coal — a  clay  retort,  placed 
horizontally,  and  worked  so  as  to  revolve  to  a  limited  extent;  that  is, 
when  moved  round  two-thirds  of  its  periphery,  it  returns  back. 
Claims,  a  retort  made  of  clay,  and  having  a  revolving  motion  when  in 
action. 

1858.  August  10.— T.  &  W.  B.  McCuE.  Improvement  in  ap- 
paratus for  extracting  oil  from  coal.  Uses  a  revolving  horizontal 
cylindrical  retort,  which  passes  J  of  its  periphery,  and  then  returns ; 
the  retort  is  furnished  with  elevated  plates  or  ribs  running  parallel  to 
the  long  axis  of  the  retort ;  these  aid  in  preventing  the  coal  accumu- 
lating in  a  mass  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  retort.  Claims  the  elevated 
plates  or  ribs  described. 

1858.  October  19. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  pro- 
cesses for  obtaining  volatile  oils  from  coal,  wood,  &c.  The  coal,  &c.,  is 
distilled  in  a  tubular  or  cylindrical  vertical  retort,  or  tower,  open  at 
the  upper  extremity,  by  which  the  retort  is  fed  ;  the  eduction  pipe  is 
placed  at  the  lower  part  of  the  tower,  and  leads  to  the  condenser  or 
tank ;  from  this  latter,  a  curved  pipe  leads  to  the  worm  ;  between  the 
tank  and  the  worm  a  steam  jet  nozzle  is  affixed,  so  that  aspiration 
may  be  effected,  by  which  the  current  of  distilled  products  is  directed 
downwards :  a  fire  is  first  kindled  at  the  open  mouth  of  the  retort 
when  filled  ;  the  aspirator  is  then  put  in  action,  when  the  distillation 
downwards  goes  on  slowly  without  interruption'. 

1858.  December  28. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  ap- 
paratus for  distilling  coal.  The  process  is  that  above  described. 
Claims  the  combination  and  arrangement  of  a  distilling  tower  and  re- 
ceiving vessel,  as  described,  with  a  steam  blast,  or  its  equivalent,  for 
producing  an  increased  current,  as  set  forth. 

1858.  December  28. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  manu- 
facture of  Pyrogenic  Oils  ;  places  the  substances  to  be  distilled  on  the 
sole  of  a  reverbatory  furnace  of  a  peculiar  construction,  so  that  the 
sole  may  be  heated  as  well  as  the  arch.  Claims  forming  Oleaginous 
Vapors  from  substances  yielding  pyrogenic  oils,  by  the  action  of  the 
heat  of  a  properly  regulated  current  of  the  products  of  combustion 
passing  over  and  above  the  surface  of  the  mass  operated  on,  with  or 
without  the  aid  of  external  heat,  as  described. 

1858.  December  28.— LUTHER  ATWOOD.     Apparatus  for  decom- 
posing wood,  bones,  &c.     This  apparatus  is  adapted  for  dry  distillation 
in  general,  and  in  principle  is  the  same  with  that  patented  by  the  ap- 
plicant, October  19.     The  fire,  in  this  case,  is  external  to  the  tower, 
and  the  flame.  &c.,  is  conveyed  to  it  through  flues ;  a  steam  aspirator 
is  used  here  also.     Claims  the  combination  of  the  distilling  tower  with 
the  fire-place,  when  so  arranged  as  to  supply  products  of  combustion 
by  a  downward  draught  through  the  fire-place,  as  set  forth. 

1859.  January  11. — JAMES  O'HAEA.     Improvement  in  apparatus 
for  distilling  oils  from  coal ;  a  vertical  retort  is  used,  having  n  feed- 
pipe and  eduction  pipe  at  the  upper  end ;  the  retort  is  placed  in  a 
fire-place,  and  supported  on  flanges  attached  near  the  upper  part  of  the 


144  AMERICAN   PATENTS. 

side.  An  Archimedean  screw  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  retort,  for 
stirring  the  coal — there  is  room  left  between  the  plates  of  the  screw 
and  the  inner  wall  of  the  retort  for  the  coal  to  drop  down.  Claims,  in 
an  upright  retort,  the  use  of  a  revolving  screw  of  less  diameter  than 
the  inside  of  the  retort,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  ascent  as  well  as  the 
descent  of  the  coal  at  the  sides  of  the  retort. 

1859.  January  25. — E.  N".  HORNER.  Improvement  in  processes 
for  extracting  oils  from  coal.  Claims  the  use  of  a  compound  of  cream 
tartar,  salt,  and  lime  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  condenser,  to  sepa- 
rate the  steam  from  the  oil,  to  condense  the  vapors,  and  to  eliminate 
sulphurous  acid  gas. 

1859.  February  1. — N.  B.  HATCH.  Improvement  in  retorts  for 
distilling  oils  from  coal.  The  coal  is  fed  into  a  semi-globular-shaped  • 
flat-bottomed  still,  or  retort,  through  a  hopper,  and  while  being  dis- 
tilled, is  kept  in  motion  by  a  sweep-bar,  or  vertical  arm,  with  hori- 
zontal shafts  attached,  which  are  furnished  with  metallic  plates,  so  as 
to  sweep  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  while  in  motion ;  eduction  pipes  are 
placed  at  the  lower  margin  of  the  vessel  on  a  level  with  its  bottom. 
Claims  the  application  of  a  sweep-bar,  or  arm,  with  plates  attached, 
operating  so  as  to  push  or  spread  the  material  over  the  floor,  and  at 
intervals  discharge  some  continuously  by  openings  at  or  near  the  edge 
of  the  retort,  as  set  forth. 

1859.  February  15. — JOHX  NICHOLSON.  Re-issued  May  3.  Im- 
provement in  retorts  for  distilling  coal-oil;  a  cylindrical-horizontal 
retort  is  fitted  with  a  shaft  travelling  through  the  long  axis,  furnished 
with  agitators  or  arms  having  curved  blades.  At  the  extremities  of 
the  retort,  openings  exist :  4  at  one  end  for  the  attachment  of  supply 
and  discharge  pipe,  and  at  the  other  end,  4  exit  pipes.  Claims  the 
shaft  or  agitator  armed  with  curved  blades  ;  also  the  openings  at  the 
ends  of  the  retort,  as  described.  On  a  re-issue,  a  claim  to  the  use  of 
straight  blades  also,  was  secured. 

1859.  February  22. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  ap-. 
paratus  for  destructive  distillation.  This  form  of  apparatus  is  but  a 
variation  of  that  already  described  ;  the  fire  is  external  to  the  tower, 
and  the  heated  air  enters  the  upper  part  of  the  tower  by  a  bent  flue  ; 
the  combustion  is  carried  on  by  aspiration.  Claims  the  arrangement 
and  combination  of  the  combustion  tower,  the  distilling  tower,  and  the 
steam  blast  or  its  equivalent,  as  set  forth. 

1859.  March  29. — JAS.  GILLESPIE.  Improvement  in  coal-oil 
retorts.  Uses  a  revolving  horizontal  cylindrical  retort,  with  shaft 
passing  through  its  long  axis  :  the  eduction  pipe  is  formed  by  the  hol- 
low extremity  of  the  axle ;  in  order  to  keep  the  mouth  of  the  eduction 
pipe  always  in  nn  upright  position,  it  is  secured  by  pins  surrounding 
the  journal.  Claims,  securing  the  hopper-cup  with  pins,  or  their 
equivalents,  surrounding  the  journal,  with  the  square-headed  shaft. 

1859.  March  29. — LUTHER  ATWOOD.  Improvement  in  apparatus 
for  destructive  distillation.  Combines  a  vertical  distilling  tower,  as 
before  patented,  having  an  air-tight  cover  and  feed-opening,  with  a 
condenser  and  adjustable  draft  passage,  furnished  with  a  sliding  door 
or  damper,"  so  as  to  regulate  the  passage  of  air  to  the  fire  ;  distillation 
goes  on  by  an  upward  current. 


AMERICAN   PATENTS.  145 

1859.  April  19. — WILLIAM  SMITH.  Improvement  in  coal-oil' 
retorts.  Uses  a  horizontal  cylinder  retort,  furnished  with  a  hollow 
shaft  having  hollow  arms  attached,  so  that  a  current  of  ah-  or  water 
may  be  driven  through  to  cool  the  retort. 

1859.  May  31. — JOSEPH  E.  HOLMES.  Improvement  in  coal-oil 
retorts.  Uses  an  L  shaped  retort,  with  a  central  perforated  pipe  at- 
tached to  the  cover,  and  suspended  from  it,  to  allow  of  the  escape  of 
the  vapors,  leaving  an  open  space  beneath  it.  through  which  the  mate- 
rial may  be  removed.  Claims  the  perforated  pipe,  as  set  forth. 

1859.  May  31.— R.  HAZLETT  and  T.  H.  HOBBS.  Improvement 
in  coal-oil  retorts ;  retort  also  useful  for  general  purposes  of  distilla- 
tion. The  base  of  the  retort  is  flat,  or  rectangular,  and  the  sides  con- 
vex. The  fire  is  applied  to  the  lower  portion  only.  The  retort  has  a 
false  bottom,  or  charger,  for  holding  the  coal ;  an  air-chamber  or  space 
is  allowed  between  the  pan  and  the  bottom  of  the  retort,  that  the  coals 
may  not  be  burned.  The  retort  has  conduits  or  gutters  running  along 
the  lower  part  of  the  sides  of  the  retort.  Claims  the  shape  of  the 
retort,  and  the  charger. 

1859.  March  29. — Jos.  E.  HOLMES.  Protects  the  hollow  journal 
eduction  pipe  from  entrance  of  coal,  &c.,  by  fitting  on  an  elbow  inside 
the  retort,  and  carrying  it  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  retort ;  also 
adapts  a  perforated  steam  pipe  passing  through  the  journal,  and  diffus- 
ing steam  through  the  coal. 

1859.  May  31. — WM.  G.  W.  JAEGER.  Improvement  in  retorts 
for  distilling  coal-oils.  A  cucurbit  shaped  retort,  with  a  flat  bottom, 
having  side-channels  and  trap-openings,  or  water-valves,  by  which  the 
heavy  oils  or  tar  may  be  removed,  while  the  lighter  oils  pass  off  by  the 
neck.  Claims  the  side-channels  and  trap-openings,  also  the  try-hole 
in  combination  with  the  retort  described. 

1859.  June  21. — H.  P.  GIXGEMBRE.  Improvement  in  apparatus 
for  destructive  distillation.  Uses  an  L  shaped  retort,  combined  with 
charging-boxes,  crusher,  and  dischargmg-tube,  as  described,  capable  of 
being  subjected  to  a  degree  of  temperature  higher  at  the  horizontal 
than  at  the  vertical  end  ;  atmospheric  air  being  excluded.  The  crusher 
is  placed  in  the  retort  between  the  point  of  greatest  and  least  heat. 

1859.  June  28. — W.  G.  W.  JAEGER.  An  improvement  in  the 
mode  of  condensing  vapors  of  oil,  by  introducing  between  the  retort 
and  condensing  worm  a  large  surface  condenser  of  special  construction ; 
attached  to  this  is  a  fan-blower,  an  escape-pipe,  and  a  trap-opening. 
Claims  the  novelty  in  the  apparatus. 

1859.  June  30. — JOHN  L.  STEWART.  Improvement  in  retorts  ; 
uses  a  revolving  web-retort,  with  induction  and  escape-pipes  at  one 
end  ;  a  coal-feeding  endless  apron,  which  carries  the  coal-twice  through 
the  retort.  A  water-trough  and  endless  carrier  to  remove  the  coke. 
is  attached 

1859.  August  2. — WM.  T.  BAENES.  Improvement  consists  in  at- 
taching to  a  coal  oil  apparatus  an  automaton  dust-clearer,  consisting  of 
a  series  of  levers  and  rod,  operated  by  a  cam  or  otherwise.  .Spiral  or 
screw  flanges  are  adapted  to  the  head  of  the  retort  for  pushing  the  ma- 
terial away  from  the  hole  in  the  journal. 
'10 


146  AMERICAN    PATENTS. 

1859.  August  2. — HENBY  PEMBERTOX.  In  the  refining  of  coal -oil, 
claims  recovering  the  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  process,  by  treating 
the  residuum  with  hot  water,  steam,  OP  otherwise. 

1859.  August  2.— WM.  T.  BARNES.  Claims  a  tube  provided  with 
tubular  arms,  made  to  revolve,  and  connected  with  a  water  supply,  as 
set  forth.  Claims  also  the  arrangement  of  the  water  tanks. 

1859.  August  16. — H.  P.  GINGEMBRE.  Claims  the  continual  pro- 
gression and  gradual  destructive  distillation  of  coal  or  other  bitumens. 

1859.  September  20. — MOEEIS  L,  KEEN.  Claims,  in  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal-tar,  the  employment  of  additional  heat,  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  coal-tar  or  other  similar  hydrocarbon,  when  used  in  combi- 
nation with  pressure  in  the  boiler  to  prevent  the  tarry  foam  rising  up 
in  the  vessel. 

1859.  November  29. — MATTHEW  HODGKINSON.     Claims  a  station- 
ary retort,  armed  with  knives  whose  edges  are  at  right  angles  with  the 
shaft  passing  through  it,  by  which  the  coal  is  broken  and  powdered 
more  economically. 

1860.  January  3.     F.  W.  WILLARD.    Furnishing  coal-oil  retorts 
with  internal  false  or  extra  heads  at  either  end  of  the  retort,  and  held 
at  proper  distances  by  means  of  stays  or  studs,  as  set  forth ;  the  inter- 
veninglspace  being  filled  with  clay  or  other  non-conducting  material. 


EUROPEAN   PATENTS. 


147 


II.    EUROPEAN    PATENTS. 


Under  this  head  it  has  not  been  deemed  necessary  to  give  an 
abstract  of  each  patent,  as  the  descriptions  are  extensive,  and  the 
claims  numerous,  in  the  great  majority  of  the  patents ;  they  are 
classified  here  under  the  several  general  natures  of  the  inventions 


claimed. 

ENGLISH.* 

a.  General  Manufacture. 
1746.  Aug.  7.  H.  Haskins. 
1781.  April  30.  Earl  of  Dundonald. 
1833.  Jan.  29.  Eichard  Butler. 
1S42.  Mar.  4,  T.  A.  W.  Count  de  Hompesch, 

1550.  Oct.  7.  Jas.  Young. 

1551.  NOT.  22.  Jas.  Gilbee. 

1852.  Nov.  5.  Earl  of  Dundonald. 

1552.  Nov.  5.  G.  Shand,  and  A.  McLean. 

1853.  Jan.  13.  Wm.  Brown. 
Feb.  4.  Jno.  Perkins. 
March  18.  Geo.  Rose. 
March  81.  W.  A  P.  Aymard. 
April  22.  C.  M.  T.  du  Motay. 
July  5.  John  Fall. 

July  25.  Warren  de  la  Kue. 
August  13.  Jno.  Perkins. 
August  23.  "Win.  Brown. 
Oct  12.  E.  J.  Maumene. 
Dec.  9.  J.  Chisholm. 
Dec.  27.  F.  C.  CalTert. 

1554.  Feb.  4.  Wm.  Little. 
Feb.  15.  G.  F.  Wilson. 
March  3.  Win.  Brown. 
May  10.  Bees  Eeece. 
June  23.  D.  C.  Knab. 
July  26.  P.  A.  Godefroy. 
Dec.  23.  Warren  de  la  Kue. 

1555.  Jan.  22.  Wm.  Kilgour. 
Feb.  7.  Edward  Davies. 
Sept.  4.  W.  de  la  Eue. 
NOT.  24.  H.  Hyde. 

Dec.  5.  DaTies,  Syers  &  Humphrey. 
1856.  Jan.  3.  Herman  Brambach.t 

April  10.  P.  Bancroft,  and  S.  White. 

April  22.  A.  E.  Beach. 

May  15.    J.    G.    Simpson  and    W. 
Thompson. 

Sept.  10.  Stephen  White. 

Dec.  6.  James  Perry. 
1S57.   Jan.  S.  T.  W.  Keats.t 

Jan.  12.  G.  F.  Wilson. 

Jan.  28.  G.  F.  Wilson. 
185S.  Feb.  24.  F.  Puhls. 

Feb.  24.  F.  Puhls. 

April  6.  W.  Ziernozel. 

May  26.  J.  Stuart. 

&.  Apparatus  for  Distillation. 

1852.  Dec.  28.  Edward  Mucklow. 

1853.  Jan.  24.  D.  C.  Knab. 

August  13.  A.  M.  M.  de  Bergerin. 


1853.  August  22.  A.  E.  L.  Bellford. 

Oct.  21.  J.  F.  F.  Challeton. 

NOT.  2.  F.  A  Gatty. 

Dec.  5.  Edward  Lavender. 

Dec.  20.  Paul  Wagenmann. 
1S54.  Jan.  6.  H.  H.  Edwards. 

July  14.  A.  P.  Price. 

Sept.  14.  G.  F.  &  F.  J.  Evans, 

Dec,  15.  F.  Archer  &  W.  Papineau. 

1855.  May  29.    E.  J.  Lafond  and  A  de 

Chateau  Sillard. 
July  IS,  John  Ellis. 
Sept.  18.  P.  G.  Barry. 

1856.  Feb.  2S.  P.  G.  Barry. 
Sept  10.  Stephen  White. 
Dec.  6.  W.  H.  Bowers. 

1857.  March  31.  T.  E.  D'Arcet. 
August  5.  Sebastian  Bottiere. 
Sept.  9.  Edward  Lavender. 
Oct  22.  A.  H.  C.  Chiandi. 

FEENCH4 
a.  General  Manufacture. 

1848.  Nov.  17.  Lacarriere. 

1850.  April  23.  Lacarriere. 
July  29.  Ferrand. 

1851.  Feb.  15.  Bourdeux. 

1852.  April  17.  Bourdeux. 

1853.  Jan.  15.  Poisat,  Knab  and  Mallet 
May  25.  L'Isle  de  Sales. 

Sept.  7.  Chatelau  and  Encontre. 
Oct.  3.  Challeton. 

1854.  Jan.  12.  L'Isle  de  Sales. 
June  27.  Burdin. 

1855.  Dec.  24.  Eenaud. 

1856.  April  24.  Beach. 
Nov.  26.  Tripon. 

1857.  Jan.  10.  Camus  and  Messililier. 

&.  Apparatus. 

1S50.  Jan.  16.  Brehot 

Jan.  29.  Maillart 

March  25.  Maillart  and  Ganneron. 

April  29.  Lahore. 
1851.  Nov.  12.  GirandeL 
1853.  Feb.  6.  Malo,  Prosper  and  Hugues. 

April  4.  Bnran. 

June  20.  Humbert. 
1S54.  April  IS.  Lacasse  and  Millochau. 

July  3.  Sauvage. 

Sept  15.  Challeton. 


*  For  descriptions,  consult  "English  Specifications  of  Patents,  by  Bennet  Wood- 
croft,"  published  by  Eoyal  authority,  London. 

t  Thus  marked  are  void  specifications,  not  being  completed. 

£  Patents  in  force  not  published  by  the  Government.  Those  which  have  expired 
may  be  consulted  in  the  Catalogue  des  Brevets  d'lnvention,  published  by  the  French 
Government. 


INDEX. 


Agitators  in  retorts,  104. 

Albert  mineral,  16. 

Albert  mineral,  oils  from,  84. 

Alter  &  Hill's  process,  113. 

Alloys  as  heating  agents,  101. 

Alloys,  table  of  fusibility  of,  101. 

American  Patents,  list  of,  136-140. 

American  coals,  30. 

Ampeline,  62. 

Ammonia  from  heat,  89. 

Aniline,  65. 

Anthracene,  70. 

Archimedean  Screw  in  retort,  105. 

Asphalt  from  turf,  88. 

Aspirators,  nse  of,  106. 

At  wood' s  mode  of  distilling,  111. 

Baths,  metallic,  101. 

Benzule,  42,  58,  59. 

Bitumens,  31. 

Bitumen,  analysis  of,  31. 

Bitumen  in  coal,  21,  22. 

Bitumen,  nature  of,  33,  34,  35. 

Bitumen,  varieties  of,  31,  32. 

Bitterfeld,  distillation  at,  124. 

Boghead  coal,  25,  26. 

Boghead  mineral,  25. 

Bonn,  manufacture  at,  116-120. 

Breckenridge  coal,  24, 25. 

Brown  coal,  distillation  of,  122. 

Cannel  coal,  localities  of,  28. 

Carbolic  acid,  63. 

Cement  for  clay  retorts,  96. 

Chervau,  C.  &  P.,  notice  of  patent  of,  13. 

Chimney,  distillation  upward,  109. 

Chimney,  distillation,  downward,  110. 

Chrysene  and  Pyr^ne,  70. 

Clayton,  Dr.,  experiments,  6,  7. 

Coal,  analyses  of,  33. 

Coal,  chemical  change  in,  18, 19. 

Coal,  definition  of,  17. 

Coal,  slow  decomposition  of,  72. 


Coal,  influence  of  pressure,  73. 

Coal,  microscopic  examination,  17. 

Coal,  varieties  of,  23. 

Coal,  distillation  of,  53 

Coals,  nature  of,  15. 

Coals,  fat,  73. 

Coke,  36,  40. 

Coup  oil,  65,  66. 

Crane  furnace,  98. 

Creosote,  63. 

Crude  oils,  purification  of,  121, 130-132 

Cumene,  61. 

Destructive  distillation.  35,  42,  46. 

Distillation  in  towers,  106. 

Distillation,  substances  formed  by,  36. 

Dorsetshire  shale,  82. 

Eaton,  Professor  A.,  remarks  by,  114. 

English  patents,  list  of,  141. 

Escape  pipes,  100. 

Eupion,  90. 

French  patents,  list  of,  141. 

Furnace  for  peat,  98. 

Gases  of  combustion,  heat  of,  109. 

Germany,  manufacture  in,  114, 115. 

Growth  of  the  art,  16. 

Hales,  Dr.,  remarks,  8. 

Hamburg,  factory  at,  114. 

Hatcheltine,  31,  34. 

Heat,  application  of,  92,  93,  94. 

Hubner,  on  distillation  of  coal,  122-125. 

Hydrocarbons,  table  of,  34. 

Hydrocarbons  isomeric  with  paraffine,  69 

Hydrocarbons,  fossil,  74. 

Hydrogen,  carbide  of,  39,  42. 

Irish  Peat  Co.  works,  88. 

Lewitte,  notice  of  patent  of,  12. 

Lignite,  29. 

Lignite,  distillation  of,  54, 126, 127. 

Light  oils,  60, 

Mansfield,  notice  of  patent  of,  9. 

Mansfield  purification  of  benzule,  129. 


150 


INDEX. 


Manufacture,  area  of,  133. 

Manufacture,  extent  of,  134, 135. 

Manufacture,  localities  of,  134, 135. 

Middletonite,  31,  34. 

Naphtha,  31, 58. 

Naphtha,  density  of,  32. 

Naphtha  in  Boghead  coal,  27. 
t  Naphtha  from  schists,  82. 
'Naphthalin,  70. 

STaphthalin,  formation  of,  93. 

Dewberry,  Dr.,  views  on  caunel  coal,  27. 

Northern,  Mr.,  experiments,  8. 

Oils,  produce  of,  55, 

Oils  from  bituminous  schists,  82. 

Oils,  purification  of,  118, 121,128, 129. 

Oils  from  turf,  86,  87. 

Oils  of  wood  tar,  90. 

Organic  substances,  decomposition  of,  36. 

Ovens,  bripk,  97. 

Ovens,  carbonizing,  97. 

Ozokerite,  31, 34. 

Paraffine,  production  of,  67. 

Paraffine,  properties  of,  68. 

Paraffine,  purification  of,  117. 

Paraffine,  when  formed,  93. 

Paraffine,  recovery  of,  118, 127. 

Paraffine,  fossil,  31. 

Paraffine  of  turf,  88. 

Peat,  origin  of,  32. 

Peat,  products  of  distillation,  89. 

Peat  produce  in  oils,  89. 

Petroline,  82. 

Photogen,  of  Wagenmann,  118, 122. 

Photogen  from  turf,  87. 

Photogenic  oils,  62. 

Picamar,  91. 

Pipes,  distillation  in.  110,  111. 

Pittacal,  91. 

Pouillet,  table  of  temperatures,  94 

Pyrene,  71. 


Pyroxanthin,  91. 

Reichenbach,  notice  of  experiments  of,  11. 

Resins,  fossil,  74. 

Resins,  formation  of,  75. 

Retorts,  form  of,  95-100. 

Retorts,  shape  of,  100. 

Retorts,  position  of,  99,  100. 

Retorts,  vertical,  99. 

Revolving  retorts,  102. 

Revolving  retorts,  value  of,  103, 104. 

Rhenish  coals,  127. 

Saxony,  distillation  in,  123. 

Schists,  distillation  of,  82. 

Selligue,  M.,  process  of  distilling,  8S. 

Shale,  bituminous,  products  from,  82,  83. 

Slate,  posidonian,  oil  of,  83. 

Steam,  effect  on  distillation,  40. 

Steam  open,  in  distillation,  107. 

Steam,  superheated  use  of,  108. 

Steam,  purification  by,  129. 

Tar,  amount  of,  48. 

Tar,  nature  of,  48. 

Tar,  constitution  of,  56T  57. 

Tar,  production  of,  49. 

Tar,  constituents  of,  58. 

Tar  from  Cannel  coalr  51. 

Tar  from  turf,  86. 

Temperature  for  distilling,  39-94. 

Temperatures,  table  of,  94. 

Toluene,  60. 

Towers,  distillation  by,  106, 110,  111,  112. 

Turf,  mode  of  growth,  32. 

Turf,  distillation  of,  52,  85,  86. 

Volatile  oils,  distillation  of,  38. 

Vohl  on  Lignite,  126, 127. 

"VVagenmann,  process  of,  115, 116. 

"Wagenmann's  mode  of  distilling,  117, 120. 

Wood,  carbonization  of,  40. 

Young,  James,  notice  of  patent  of,  10. 


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